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INTRODUCTION 



ANALYTICAL AND 



PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



AL LESSONS IN ENf.-I.ASH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 
FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS, WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES, 
AND DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR USE. 



By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 

TTHOIi OF THE SERIES OF GRAMMARS, ENGLISH, LATIN, AND 
GREEK, ON THE SAME PLAN. 



NEW-YORK : 
PRATT, WOODFORD & COMPANY, 

No. 4 COURTLANDT STREET. 



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5 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS J 

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| [SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.] J 

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« ^UNITED STATES OP AMERICA ! 



INTRODUCTION 

TO THE 

ANALYTICAL AND 

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 

OF THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 



■ !■■■■ « 

PRACTICAL LESSONS IX ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS, WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES, 

AND DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR USE. 



By Rev. PETER' BULLIONS, D. D., 

AUTHOR OF THE SERIES OF GRA1EMARS, ENGLISH, LATE*, AXT) 

GREEK, OX THE SAAIE PLAN. ^^_— — ^ 



NEW-YORK: 



^ 

* 



PRATT, WOODFORD & COMPANY, 

No. 4 COURTLANDT STREET. 
1853. 



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Enteeed, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand 
Eight Hundred and Fifty-three, by B ey. PETER BULLION S, D. D., 
in the Clerk's Office o r the Northern District of New York. 



PKEFACE. 



This edition of the Practical Lessons in English Grammar, has 
been prepared expressly to serve as an Introduction to the Author's 
'•' Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language." 
The definitions and rules are the same, throughout, as in that work, 
and are arranged in the same order. It differs from the " Practical 
Lessons " only in the Third Part, and even in that, follows the same 
plan. The character and design of the whole, then, may be learned 
by the following extract from the Preface to that work : 

■ The work is divided into Lessons, each of which is devoted to 
some one topic. The arrangement in each Lesson, is the same through- 
out ; except that the Questions on each Rule of Syntax are left to be 
framed by the teacher. That order is the following: The Defi- 
nitions and Rules belonging to the Lesson, and intended to be com- 
mitted to memory, are placed first in large type. Next to these, any 
subordiuate matter regarded as proper for so brief a compend, is sub- 
joined in a smaller type, to be carefully read and studied with the 
Lesson. Then, a series of Questions so framed that correct answers 
will bring out all the leading facts contained in the preceding text. 
And lastly, practical Exercises are subjoined, for the purpose of re- 
ducing immediately to practice, the knowledge acquired, and fixing 
it in the easiest and most effectual manner in the understanding. 

" The Exercises in most of the Lessons, are capable of being used 
in a variety of ways ; and ample directions are given, in small but 
clear type, as to the manner in which they are intended to be used; 
so that even inexperienced teachers, and others, may be at no loss 
to conduct a class of veiy young pupils through a profitable initia- 
tory course of English Grammar. 

" In Etymology, ' Illustrations ' are occasionally thrown in, to 
shew in what manner important principals in Grammar may be 



IV PREFACE. 

simplified to the young learner ; and, in Syntax, a plain and familiar 
' Explanation ' is subjoined to each Rule, for the same purpose. 

" It is of great importance to keep the acquisitions of pupils already 
made, always at hand, and to impress them indelibly on their minds 
by repeated reviews of previous Lessons ; and it will be seen that 
directions are given at the beginning of each Lesson, for carrying 
this useful practice into effect. 

" Another feature in this work, — and (till lately) peculiar to it, — 
is, that with the principles of Grammar, at every step, are combined 
instructions and exercises in the elementary principles of Composi- 
tion. Analysis and Composition are carried on together. Directions 
for parsing each part of speech, with accompanying examples for 
practice, are given as soon as it has been treated of. And, in like 
manner, the proper method of combining words for the purpose of 
expressing our ideas, is pointed out, and Exercises devised, as soon 
as the pupil has been made acquainted with the classes of words 
capable of being combined. One Exercise of this kind, sometimes 
more, is connected with almost every Rule of Syntax, as at once an 
exercise on the Rule and a praxis on Composition. 

" As Orthography belongs more strictly to the Spelling Book, and 
Prosody is a study for more advanced pupils than those for whom this 
work is intended, they are introduced here only for the sake of form, 
and of course little is said respecting them. Though this work is 
not intended to be a complete treatise on English Grammar, no pains 
have been spared to render it useful as far as it goes. It contains as 
much as any work of its size, presented in a neat and perspicuous 
manner; and moreover, possesses some new and peculiar features, 
which claim the candid attention and examination of all who feel an 
interest in simplifying the process of education to the youthful mind, 
and doing the most good in the shortest time, in the simplest and most 
pleasing manner, at the earliest period, and at the least expense." 

Those who commence the study of Grammar after the age of 
twelve or fourteen, stand in no need of this work. They should com- 
mence at once with the Analytical and Practical Grammar, which 
contains a complete course of English Grammar, without any other 
book, and is sufficiently simple for pupils of that age. But young 
pupils, by going through this, will enter, even at an earlier period, 
on the study of the larger Grammar with great advantage. 



CONTENTS. 
Lesson Page. 

1. Definition and Division, 7 

PART FIRST. — ORTHOGRAPHY. 

2 Concerning Letters and Syllables, 7 

PART SECOND. — ETYMOLOGY. 

3 Division of Words, 9 

4 Of Nouns, 10 

5 Of Person 11 

6 Of Gender, 12 

7 Of Number, 15 

8 Of the Cases of Nouns, 18 

9 Of the Article, .' 20 

10 Of the Adjective, 21 

11 Comparison of Adjectives, 23 

12 Of the Pronoun, 26 

13 Of Relative Pronouns, 29 

14 Of Adjective Pronouns, 32 

15 Exercises on Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, 35 

16 Of Verbs, 35 

17 Division of Verbs, 38 

18 Inflection of Verbs, 41 

19 Of the Moods 43 

20 Of Tenses, or Distinctions of Time, 44 

21 Of Number and Person, 47 

22 Of the Participles, 49 

23 Of the Conjugation of Verbs, 51 

24 Negative form of the Verb, 57 

25 Interrogative form of the Verb, 59 

26 The Verb " to be," 60 

27 Progressive Form of the Active Voice, 64 

28 Passive Voice • 65 

29 Of Irregular Verbs, 69 

30 Defective and Impersonal Verbs, 75 

31 Of Adverbs 76 

32 Of Prepositions, 79 

33 Of Interjections, . . 81 

34 Of Conjunctions, 82 

35 How to distinguish the Parts of Speech, 83 

36 Parsing, 85 

37 Model of Etymological Parsing, 87 

*8 Exercises in Parsing, 88 



VI CONTENTS. 

PART THIRD.-SYNTAX. Page, 

89 General Principles of Syntax, 91 

40 Analysis of Sentences, — Simple Sentences, 91 

41 The Subject, . . . , 92 

42 Modifications of the Subject, • . . 93 

43 Modification of the Modifying Words, 94 

44 The Predicate, . 95 

45 Modifications of the Predicate, 96 

46 Compound Sentences, 97 

47. Connexion of Clauses, . 98 

48 Abridged Propositions, 99 

49 Directions for Analysis, 100 

50 v Construction of Sentences — Parts of Syntax, 102 

51 Eule I. Substantives in apposition, 103 

52 II. An Adjective with a Substantive, 104 

53 III. The Article and its Noun, 105 

54 IV. A Pronoun and its Antecedent, 106 

55 V. The Eelative and its Antecedent, .... .108 

56 VI. The Subject Nominative, 109 

57 VII. The Nominative Independent, ...... 109 

58 VIII. The Verb and its Nominative, . . . . . . 110 

59 Special Eules under Eule VIII., ...... Ill 

60 IX. The Predicate Nominative, &c., . . . . •■'-'. 112 

61 X. The Objective governed by Verbs, . . . . . 113 

62 XI. The Objective governed by Prepositions, . . 114 

63 XII. Prepositions used after certain words, . . ' . 116 

64 XIII. The Possessive Case, 117 

65 XIV. The Subjunctive Mood, .... 118 

66 XV. The Infinitive Mood, 119 

67 XVI. The Participles, 121 

68 XVII. Connexion of Tenses, 123 

69 XVIII. Construction of Adverbs, 124 

70 XIX. Construction of Conjunctions, 127 

71 ■ XX. Interjections, 130 

72 General Eule of Syntax, 131 

73 Ellipsis, Eule 1. — An Ellipsis admissible, 132 

74 " " 2.— Ellipsis not allowable, . 133 

75 Model of Syntactical Parsing, 134 

76 Promiscuous Exercises for Correction, 135 

77 Punctuation, 136 

78 Capitals, » 137 

PART FOURTH.-PROSODY. 

79 Prosody. Elocution, Versification, 138 

80 Composition, 140 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON I. 

Definition and Division. 

[Commit Definitions and Rules accurately to memory.] 

English Grammar, is the art of speaking and 
writing the English Language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthogra- 
phy ^ Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART FIRST.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON II. 

Concerning Letters and Syllables. 

[Review the preceding Lesson.] 

Orthography treats of letters, and the mode of 
combining them into syllables and words. 

A Lettek is a character representing a particular sound of the 
human voice. 

There are Twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound; and in a word or syllable may be sounded alone. The 
vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, not before another vowel sounded 
in the same syllable. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound ; 
and in a word or syllable is never sounded alone, but always in con- 
nexion with a voweL The consonants are, b, c, d, f, g, h,j, k, I, m, 
n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the 
same syllable. 



o PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound; as, ou 
in out . 

A proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sound 
ed; as oy in boy, ou in round, oi in oil. 

An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels 
is sounded; as, oa in boat. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound; as, 
eau in beauty. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a word; 
as, far; or so much of it as can he sounded at once; as, far in 
farmer. 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable; as, fox, dog. 

A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables; as, far-mer. 

A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables; as, but-ter-fly . 

A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its 
proper letters. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is English Grammar ? Into how many parts is it divid- 
ed? Mention them. What is orthography? What is a letter? 
How many letters are there in English ? How are they divided ? 
What is a vowel ? — a consonant? Name the vowels. When are 
w and y vowels? When consonants ? What is a diphthong ? — a 
proper diphthong? — an improper diphthong? — a triphthong? — 
What is a syllable ? What is a word of one syllable termed ? — 
of two ? — of three ? — of four or more ? What is spelling ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 9 

PART SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY. 

LESSON III. 

Division of Words. 

[Review the preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.., 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications, and their derivations. 

Words are certain articulate sounds used by com- 
mon consent as signs of our ideas. They are divid- 
ed into different classes, called 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 
The parts of Speech in the English language are 
nine ; viz.. The Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and Con- 
junction. — Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are 
declined ; the rest are indeclinable. 

A Substantive is a noun, or any word used as a noun. 
Obs. A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain 
changes of form or termination, to express the different relations 
of gender, number, case, person, 8cc, usually termed in Gram- 
mar Accidents; as, man, men; love, loves, loved. 

An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of 
form; as, good, some, perhaps. 

Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements or parts of speech, stating the Accidents 
which belong to each word, and pointing out its re- 
lations to other words with which it is connected. 

QUESTIONS. 
What does Etymology treat of? What are words ? What are 
they divided into ? "What are these classes called ? How many 
parts of speech are there ? Name them. Which are declinable ? 
Which are indeclinable ? What is a declinable word ? — an inde- 
clinable ? What is Parsing ? 



10 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



LESSON IV. 



Of Nouns. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing ; as, John, London, book. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

A Proper Noun is the name applied to an indivi- 
dual only ; as, Washington, Albany, the Hudson. 

A Common Noun is a name applied to all things 
of the same sort ; as, man, chair, table, book. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Under common nouns are usually ranked, 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude ; as, army, people. 

2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities ; as, piety, wickedness. 

3. Verbal nouns, or names of actions; as, reading, writing, 



ILLUSTRATION.— Every thing of which a person can speak, hear, or think, 
has a name ; that name in grammar is called a noun. Names common to all 
things of the same sort, or class, are called Common nouns ; as, Man, woman, day, 
river, city, country. 

Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and not common to all, 
are called Proper nouns ; as, John, Lucy, Friday, Thames, London, England. 
Common nouns, then, distinguish sorts or classes ; Proper nouns distinguish in- 
dividuals. Thus, the noun "Man" is the name of a class or species, and is 
applied equally to all, or is common to all the individuals in that class. But 
"John" is a name that belongs only to certain individuals of that class, and not 
to others ; it is therefore not Common but Proper.* 

A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase speak of, is a noun ; 
as, A man ; I speak of money. 

To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and 
Case. 

* The word " proper" means " not belonging to more, not common ; noting 
n.n individual." — Johnson. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 



QUESTIONS. 



What is a noun ? How many kinds of nouns are there ? What 
is a common noun ? What is a proper noun ? What part of 
speech are names of things ? What is a collective noun ? — an 
abstract noun ? — a verbal noun ? Are these nouns proper or com- 
mon ? What Accidents belong to nouns ? 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the nouns in the following sentences ; say why they are nouns. Tell 
whether they are proper or common, and why. Exercises of this kind may be 
taken from any book. 

The table and chairs in this room belong to Robert. 
The houses and streets in New- York are larger than 
those in Albany. • The principal cities in the State ^of 
New- York, are New-York, Albany, Utica, Rochester, 
and Buffalo. Wheat, corn, rye, and oats,are extensively 
cultivated. Apples, pears, cherries, plums, and other 
fruits abound. George is older than John ; they both 
study arithmetic, and grammar. 



LESSON V. 
Of Person. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Person, in grammar, is the relation of a noun or 
pronoun to what is said in discourse. 

The persons are three, First, Second, and Third. 

A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the 
speaker or writer; as, "I Paul have written it." 

A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the 
person or thing addressed ; as, " Thou, God, seest 
me" — " Hail Liberty." 

A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the 
person or thing spoken of; as, " Truth is mighty," 



12 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Obs. — The Jirst and the second person can belong only to nouns 
denoting persons, or things regarded as such ; because persons 
only can speak or be spoken to. The third person may belong 
to all nouns ; because every object, whether person or thing, may 
be spoken of. 

ILLUSTRATION.— Person makes no change either in the meaning or the 
form of a noun, but simply denotes the manner in which it is used ; so that the 
same noun, without change, may be in the first person, or the second, or the 
third, according as it denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person 
or thing spoken of. Moreover, as the name of the speaker or of the person spoken 
to,is seldom expressed, (the pronouns i" or thou being used in its stead,) a noun 
is very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and almost never in 
either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun personified. It seems 
therefore a useless waste of time to mention the person of a noun in parsing, 
unless it is in the first or second person, which will not happen more than once 
in a thousand times. For this reason, the mention of % per son as a property of 
the noun, may be omitted in parsing, except when it is of the first or second 
person, always taking it for granted that it is of the third, unless otherwise men- 
tioned. The distinction of nouns into proper and common, may also be omitted, 
because no use is made of the distinction in the construction of a sentence. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is person ? How many persons are there ? What does 
the first denote ? — the second ? — the third ? To what sort of nouns 
do the first and the second person belong ? Why ? To what does 
the third belong ? Why ? Does person make any difference in the 
meaning or the form of the noun ? What then does it denote ? Is 
the name of the speaker, or the person spoken to, often mentioned ? 
What words are used instead of them ? 



LESSON VI. 
Of Gender. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
Sex. There are three genders, the Masculine, Femi- 
nine, and Neuter. 

Nouns denoting males are Masculine ; as, man, 
boy,— Jang, lion. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



13 



Nouns denoting females are Feminine; as, woman, 
girl, — queen, lioness. 

Nouns denoting neither males nor females are 
Neuter ; as, book, house, field. 

There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes. 

1. By different words ; as 



Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Hart 


roe 


Beau 


belle 


Horse 


mare 


Boy 


girl 


Husband 


wife 


Brother 


sister 


King 


queen 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


mistress 


Bull 


cow 


Nephew 


niece 


Drake 


duck 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


2. By 


a difference of Termination ; as, 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Actor 


actress 


Lion 


lioness 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Patron 


patroness 


Baron 


baroness 


Peer 


peeress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Poet 


poetess 


Duke 


duchess 


Prince 


princess 


Emperor 


empress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Executor 


executrix 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Heir 


heiress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Hero 


heroine 


Widower 


widow 


Host 


hostess 






3. 


By prefixing 


another word ; as, 


Masc. 




Fern 




A cock sparrow 


A hen 


sparrow 


A he goat 




A she 


goat 



14 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Ifasc. Fern. 

A man servant A maid servant 

A male child A female child 

Male descendants Female descendants. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Some noun9 are either masculine or feminine; as, parent, 
servant, neighbor. Such are sometimes said to be of the common 
gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are converted by a figure of 
speech into the masculine or the feminine ; as, when we say of the 
sun, " He is setting ;" of the moon, " She is eclipsed ;" and of a ship, 
" She sails." 

3. Animals of inferior size, or whose sex is not known, are often 
spoken of as neuter. Thus, of a child we may say, " It is a lovely 
creature." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is gender ? How many genders are there ? What does 
the masculine gender denote ? — the feminine ? — the neuter? What 
nouns are said to be masculine ? What, feminine ? What, neuter ? 
How many ways are there of distinguishing the sexes ? What are 
they ? When a noun denotes either a male or a female, of what 
gender is it sometimes said to be ? When the sex of animals is not 
known, of what gender are their names ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the preceding lists, tell the feminine of each masculine noun, and the 
masculine of each feminine. 



2. Tell the part of speech and gender of the following words : thus, 
noun, neuter ; boy, «. noun, masculine, &c. 

House, boy, stone, boot, cow, father, mother, sister, 
brother, daughter, aunt, nephew, niece, uncle, shepherd, 
paper, pen, ink, parent, neighbor, friend, lion, widow, 
baron, negro, hero, house, tree, bird, mouse, fly, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

LESSON VII. 
. Of Number. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one. Nouns have two 
numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The Sin- 
gular denotes one ; the Plural more than one. 

GENERAL RULE. 

The plural is commonly formed by adding 5 to the 
singular ; as, book, books. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or 0, form the plural 
by adding es ; as, Miss, -Misses ; brush, brushes ; 
match, matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

Exc. Nouns in eo, iq, and yo, and in ch sounding Jc, have s only ; 
as cameo, cameos ; folio, folios ; monarch, monarchs. Also canto 
Las cantos ; but other nouns in after a consonant now commonly 
add es ; as, grotto, grottoes ; tyro, tyroes, &c. 

2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y into 
ies in the plural ; as, Lady, ladies. 

Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general rule ; 
as, Day, days. 

3. Nouns in/©r fe, change/ or fe into ves in the 
plural ; as, Loaf, loaves ; life, lives. 

Exc. Dwarf, scarf; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, handkerchief, 
mischief; gulf, turf, surf ; fife, strife ; proof, hoof, roof, reproof, fol- 
low the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in s ; as, 
muff, mv.fr s ; except staff, which has sometimes staves. 



16 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

OBSEKVATIONS. 

1. Some nouns form the plural irregularly. They are the fol- 
lowing : — » 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man men Tooth teeth 

Woman -women Goose geese 

Child children Mouse mice 

Foot feet Louse lice 

Ox oxen Penny pence 

Singular. * Plural* 

Brother (one of the same family) brothers 

Brother (one of the same society) brethren 

Sow or swine sows or swine 

Die (for gaming) dice 

Die (for coining) dies 

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp 

Court-martial courts-martial 

Cousin-german cousins-german 

Father-in-law, <fec. fathers in-law, &c. 

2. "Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their original 
plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or on have a in the plural ; 
but is, in the singular, is changed into es ; ex and ix into ices ; us 
into i ; as, 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Arcanum arcana Crisis crises 

Automaton automata Apex apices 

Axis axes Magus magi 

3. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a race 
or family ; as, the Stewarts ; or to several persons of the same 
name ; as, the twelve Ccesars. 

4. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things weighed or 
measured, are mostly singular ; as, gold, meekness, temperance, milk, 
sugar, <fcc. 

5. Some nouns are plural only ; as, annals, data, belloivs, scis- 
sors, &c. 

6. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, trout, 
salmon, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

7. Some nouns are plural in form; but in construction, either sin- 
gular or plural; as, amends, means, news, riches, pains; and the 
names of sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, &c. 

8. The article a or an before a singular noun, is dropped before 
the plural ; as, singular, a man ; plural, men. 

QUESTIONS. 

"What is meant by number ? How many numbers are there ? 
What does the singular denote ? — the plural ? How is the plural 
commonly formed ? When is the plural formed by adding es? 
How do nouns in y after a consonant, form the plural? — after a 
vowel? — nouns inforfe? When have proper names a plural? 
What nouns are mostly singular ? What nouus are plural only ? 
What nouns are alike in both numbers ? What nouns are plural 
in form, but either singular or plural in construction ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Put the following words in. the plural, and give the rule for forming it ; 
thus, " Chair, plural chairs." Rule, " The plural is commonly formed," &c. ; 
" Fox, plural, /ozes." R. " Nouns in s, sA," &c. 

Chair, fox. table, cat, dog, horse, house, hand, finger, 
arm, boy, girl ; dish, church, box, miss, sky, body, key, 
day, toy, leaf, knife, wife, loaf. An apple, (Obs. 8, 
above.) a pear, a cherry, a bush, a church, a bell. 

2. Write or spell the singular of the following plurals, and prefix the indefi- 
nite article : 

Flies, boxes, leaves, brushes, knives, marshes, bays, 
tables, bushes, trees, dogs, ducks, geese, wives, duties, 
churches, matches, mice, days, keys, staves, &c. 

3. Tell the plural of the following irregular nouns : 

Man, woman, child, ox, tooth, foot, goose, penny, 
mouse ; father-in-law, mother-in-law, court-martial, fish- 
erman, washerwoman, cousin-german, &c. 

4. Tell the gender and number of the following nouns ; give the plural and 
the rule for forming it ; thus, " House," a noun, neuter, singular ; plural, 
houses." "The plural is commonly formed," &c. 



18 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

House, boy, stone, boat, father, king, knife, aunt, 
emperor, governess, pen, lioness, baron, sister, brother, 
lord, box, bush, rush, goose, bachelor, doe, bride, fly, 
loaf, study, coach, toy, mouth, watch, hero, church, tree, 
way, wife, half, fish, table, mother, apple, cherry, &c. 



LESSON VIII. 
Of the Cases of Nouns. 

[Review the 'three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Case is the state or condition of a noun with re- 
spect to the other words in a sentence. 

Nouns have three cases; viz., the Nominative, 
Possessive, and Objective. 

The Nominative case commonly expresses that 
of which something is said, or declared ; as, The sun 
shines. 

The Possessive denotes that to which something 
belongs ; as, The lady's fan. 

The Objective denotes the object of some action 
or relation ; as, James assists Thomas ; they live in 
Albany. 

The nominative and objective of nouns are alike. 

The possessive singular is formed by adding an 
apostrophe and s to the nominative ; as, John's. 

When the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed 
by adding an apostrophe only ; as, Ladies'. 

NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED J 

Norm. Lady Ladies John 

Poss. Lady's Ladies' John's 

Obj. Lady Ladies John — — 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Proper names generally want the plural. 

Passing: — A noun is parsed etymologically, by 
telling its gender, number, and case ; thus, Lady's, a 
noun, feminine, in the possessive singular. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. "When the nominative singular ends in ss, or letters of a similar 
sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in order to 
avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds ; as, ,; for goodness' 
sake ;" " for conscience' sake." This however is seldom done, unless 
the word following begins with 5; thus, we do not say "the prince' 
feather," but " the prince's feather." 

2. The objective case, with of before it, is generally equivalent 
to the possessive ; thus, " the rage of the tyrant" and " the tyrant's 
rage," mean the same thing. Sometimes, however, the meaning 
will be different [See Eng. Gr. 88, 3 : An. & Pr. Gr. 176.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What is case ? How many cases have nouns ? What does the 
nominative case express ? — the possessive ? — the objective ? What 
two cases are alike \ How is the possessive singular formed ? — 
the possessive plural ? 

EXERCISES. 
Gender, Number, and Case. 
Tell the gender, number, and case of the following nouns; thus, "Father," 
a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular.* Parse the nouns. 

* In using the above exercises, it will save much time, which is all-import- 
ant, if the pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the noun in the 
fewest words possible; and to say them always in the same order as above. 
For the same reason, the distinction of nouns into proper and common may be 
omitted. And as person has nothing to do with the form of a noun, but only 
with its use; and as nouns are almost always of the third person, the mention 
of person may be omitted ; but when the noun is in the first or the second per- 
son, it should be mentioned. It will also be a profitable exercise for him to 
assign a reason for every part of his description ; thus, Father, a noun, because 
the name of an object ; masculine, because it denotes the male sex ; singular, 
because it denotes but one; plural, fat h ers. Rule, " The plural is commonly 
formed by adding s to the singular." 



20 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Fatner, mother, sister's husband, brother's wife, un- 
cle's house, Tom's books, city, virtue's reward, brother's 
widow, Washington the hero, the statesman, the father 
of his country, carpenter, farmer, lawyer's fees, teacher's 
manual, scholar's assistant, ladies' gloves, beans, peas, 
plums, cherries, houses, lands, rivers, mountains, sun, 
moon, stars, &c. 

[Review the whole thoroughly from the beginning, answering accurately all 
the questions.] 



LESSON IX. 
Of the Article. 

An Article is a word put before a noun, to show 
the manner in which it is used. 

There are two articles, a or an, and the. 

A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it 
shows that the noun is not limited to a particular 
person or thing ; as, a king, i. e., any Jang. 

The is called the Definite Article, because it shows 
that the noun is limited to a particular person or 
thing ; as, the King, i. e., some particular King. 

A noun without an Article is taken in its widest 
sense ; as, Man is mortal ; i. e., All mankind : Or, 
in an indefinite sense ; as, There are men destitute 
of all shame, i. e., some men. 

The is sometimes put before a noun denoting the species ; as, the 

oak ; the lion. 

OBSEEVATIOJSTS. 

1. A is used before a consonant ; as, A book, a house, a tree. 

Also, before -words beginning with u long, and eu, because they 
sound as if beginning with the consonant y ; thus, A unit, a use, a 
eulogy — pronounced as if written, a yunit, a yuse, a yeulogy. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

2. An is used before a vowel or silent h ; as, An age, an hour. 

3. A or an is used before the singular number only ; the, before 
either the singular or the plural. 

Parsing. — The article is parsed by stating whether 
it is definite or indefinite, and mentioning the noun 
to which it belongs ; thus, 

A book. A is an article, indefinite, and belongs to " book'' 
QUESTIONS. 

What is an article ? How many articles are there ? WHiat is A 
or An called? Why? What is The called? Why? In what 
sense is a noun without an article taken ? What is A used before ? 
What is An used before ? How is the article parsed ? 

EXEKCTSES. 
Is it proper to say a man, or an man? and why? 
a apple, or an apple ? and why ? 
a house, or an house ? and why ? 
a hour, or an hour ? and why ? 
Prefix the indefinite article in the proper form, to the following words: 

Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, 
owl, egg, ear, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young 
man, word, book, pot, bench, open wagon, round stone, 
old hat, penny trumpet, ice house, &c. 

Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change ; parse the articles : 

An cup, an door, a apple, an pear, an hat, an wig, an 
eulogy, a honor, an crow, a ostrich, an pen, a ugly 
beast, an pretty beast, an pretty thing, an huge monster, 
a upper room, &c. 



LESSON X. 
Of the Adjective. 
An Adjective is a word used to qualify a sub- 
stantive ; as, A good boy ; a square box ; ten dollars. 
He is poor. To lie is base. 



22 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Adjectives denoting number, are called Numeral 
adjectives. Of these there are two classes ; the Car- 
dinal and the Ordinal. 

The Cardinal are one, two, three, &c. and express 
how many — written in figures, thus, 1, 2, 3, &c. 

The Ordinal are first, second, third, &c, and ex- 
press which one of a number — written in figures, 
thus, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. 

ILLUSTRATION. — A noun, or the name of a thing being mentioned brings be- 
fore the mind the idea of the tiling itself. Thus, the word " horse," for exam- 
ple, suggests the idea of the animal so called. But if we wish to describe or point 
out a particular horse more definitely and to distinguish it from others of the same 
species, we connect with the name or noun a word denoting some property or 
quality by which it may be known or distinguished ; as, " a little horse ; " " an 
old horse ; " "a black horse," &c. Words used for this purpose are called Adjec- 
tives, because they add to or connect with the noun the idea of some quality or 
property belonging to it. Sometimes several of these may be joined with the 
same noun ; as, when we say, " a littlt old black horse ;" " a smooth white round 
stone;" " the good old way. " 

In any phrase or sentence, the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be 
found by prefixing the phrase, " What kind of," to the noun in the form of a ques- 
tion ; as, What kind of a horse 1 What kind of a stone 1 What kind of a way 1 
The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective. 

It may assist the "young beginner" also to remember that a word which 
makes sense with the word thing after it, is an adjective ; thus, good, bad, little, 
round, may be adjectives, because we can say, a good thing, a bad thing, a little 
thing, &c 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Nouns become adjectives, when they are used before other 
nouns, to express a quality or property belonging to them; as, a 
gold ring; _a silver cup; sea water; a. h ay field; a, flower garden. 

2. Adjectives are often used as nouns; as, " God rewards the 
good and punishes the had." " The virtuous are the most hap- 
py." Adjectives thus used are regarded as plural, because they 
denote more than one. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is an adjective ? What are adjectives denoting number 
called? What is a numeral adjective? How mr-.ny classes of 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

numeral adjectives are there? What are the cardinal numbers? 
What do they express ? What are the ordinal numbers ? What 
do they express ? When do nouns become adjectives ? Are ad- 
jectives ever used as nouns ? Of what number are they consid- 
ered ! . 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following exercise, let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the 
adjectives ; and tell how he knows them to be so. 

A round table, a pretty dog, a little mouse, a low 
chair, a small book, a sharp knife, white paper, dirty 
books, ugly faces, a beautiful flower, a rich man, fresh 
fish, a wild horse, a short man, an old hat, a fierce dog, 
a good pen, a wise king, an honest man, tame rabbits, 
a fine day, a sweet apple, a long stick, a little handsome 
old woman, a thick square book, a large white cat, a 
new book, a clean white frock, a full cup, an empty 
mug, a warm room, a wet towel, a cold rainy night, a 
cloudy sky, windy weather, hard frost, deep snow. 

2. In the above Exercises, let the pupil take each noun and prefix to it as many 
adjectives as he can think of, so as to make sense : as, for example, " table," 
high table, low table, long table, &c. &c, and in reciting put the emphasis on the 
adjective. 

3. Let him take each adjective, and add to it as many nouns as he can think of 
so as to make sense; as, "round," a round ball, a round hole, a round house, a 
round cake, etc., and put the emphasis on the noun. 



LESSON XI. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

[Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

Comparison is that property of the adjective by 
which it expresses quality in different degrees in ob- 
jects compared. 



24 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; 

the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive expresses the quality simply; 
The Comparative expresses the quality in a higher or lower 
degree in one object than in another; 
* The Superlative expresses the quality in the highest or lowest 
degree in one object compared with two or more. 

In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative is 
usually formed by adding er to the Positive ; and the 
Superlative, by adding est; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest ; 
wise, wiser, wisest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are usually 
compared by prefixing more and most; as, beauti- 
ful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1. Dissjrllables in le after a mute, are generally compared by 
er and est; as, able, abler, ablest. After a consonant y is chang- 
ed into i before er and est; as, dry, drier, driest; happy, happier, 
happiest; But y with a vowel before it, is not changed; as, gay, 
gayer, gayest. 

■ 2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the 
end of the word; as, upper, uppermost. So, undermost, fore- 
most, hindmost, utmost. 

3. When the positive ends in a simple consonant preceded by 
a single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as, hot, 
hotter, hottest. 

4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz: 

1st. Such as denote number; as, one, two; third, fourth. 

2d. figure or shape; as, circular, square. 

3d. posture, or position; as, perpendicular, 

horizontal. 
4th. Those of an absolute or superlative signification; as, 

true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, &c. 

5. Some adjectives are compared irregularly, as follows: 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

ADJECTIVES COMPARED IRREGULARLY. 



Positive. 






Comparative. 


Superlative 


Good 






better 


best 


Bad, evil 


or 


ill 


worse 


worst 


Little 






less 


least 


Much or 


ma 


n y 


more 


most 


Late 






later 


latest or last 


Near 






nearer 


nearest or next 


Far 






farther 


farthest 


Fore 






former 


foremost or first 


Old 






older or elder 


oldest or eldest 



6. Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to 
those that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persons 
only ; older and oldest, to either persons or things. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is comparison ? How many degrees of comparison are 
there? What does the positive denote? — the comparative? — the 
superlative? How are monosyllables compared? — words of more 
than one syllable ? — dissyllables in le after a mute ? — in y after a 
consonant? What sort of adjectives double the final consonant 
before er and est ? What adjectives are not compared ? What 
adjectives are compared irregularly? 

Parsing. — Adjectives are parsed by stating their 
class (if numerals), the degree of comparison, and 
the nouns which they qualify. If not compared, it 
should be so stated. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the adjectives in the following exercise; parse them; comparo 
them; thus, a good father; "Good," an adjective, positive degree, qualifies "fa. 
ther," compared irregularly, good, better, best. 

2. Point out the nouns, and parse them by telling their gender, number, and 
case, as directed ; thus, " father," a noun, masculine, in the nomiuative singular. 

A good father, a wiser man, a more beautiful girl, 
3 



26. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

wild horses, young colts, a sweeter apple, the wisest 
prince, green- trees, the honest farmers, the most virtu- 
ous people, the richer tradesman, the better scholar, the 
tallest girl, the finer sheep, large oranges, the merriest 
fellows, the old soldier, pretty dogs, an ugly calf, the 
tamest rabbits, the little mouse, the longest stick, a 
wider table, a most excellent thing, the highest house, 
the most fruitful garden. 

Numerals. — Four men, the fourth day, six days, the 
seventh day, 365 days, ten horses, the first time, of four 
houses the first is of wood, the second of stone, the third 
and the fourth of brick. 

3. Turn back and go over the adjectives in the exercise, Lesson X. in the same 
way. 

4. In both exercises, change singular nouns into plural, and plural into singular; 
give the rule for the plural, and then read the phrase so changed ; thus, Father, 
plfatliers. " The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular," good 
fathers 



LESSON XII. 

Of the Pronoun. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies. 

Pronouns may be divided into four classes ; Personal, 
Relative, Interrogative, and Jldjective. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Pronouns are used simply to avoid the too frequent and 
consequently disagreeable repetition of the nouns for which they stand. Thus, 
instead of saying, John is a good boy ; John is diligent in John's studies ; we use 
the pronoun, and say as above, " John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies." 
In the use of pronouns, care should be taken to arrange the sentence in such a 
way as to leave no doubt to what noun they refer. 

The four classes of pronouns are used in different ways, as will be seen under 
each. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

PERSONAL PRONOUN'S. 

Personal Pronouns are those which distinguish the 
person by their form. They are either simple or com- 
pound. 

The simple personal pronouns are 1, thou, he, she, 
it; with their plurals, ice, ye or you, they. 

I is of the firs; person, and denotes the speaker. 

Thou is of the second person, and denotes the person addressed. 

He. e of the third person, and denote the person or thing 

spoken of. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : 





SINGUL-_ 


PLURAL. 








Worn. Jr 


Odj. 


1. m. or /. 


I mine me 


AVe ours 


113 


2. m. or /. 


Thou thine thee 


You yours 


you 


3. masc. 


He hi s him 


They theirs 


them 


3. fern. 


She hers her 


They theirs 


them 


3. neut. 


It ::s it 


They theirs 


them 



OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, with their plurals, 
ourselves, yourselves; themselves, are called Compound personal 
pronouns, used in the nominative and objective cases. In the 
nominative, they are emphatic, and are added to their respective 
personal pronouns, or are used instead cf them: as, " I myself 
did it;" " himself shall come." In the objective, they are reflex- 

I -Lowing that the agent is also the object of his own act; as, 
" Judas went and hanged h imself. ,, 

2. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, 
ice is frequently applied to one person. 

3. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for the sin- 
gular and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is 
used only in addresses to the Deity, or any important object in 
nature; or to mark special emphasis; or, in the language of con- 
tempt. The plural form, t/e, is now but seldom used. 

4. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the 
third person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the 



2S PKAGT1CA.L LESSONS IN 

third person singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons; as, 
It is I, it is we, it is you, it is they; It was she, &c 

5 The possessive case of the pronoun cannot, like the pos- 
sessive of the noun, be followed by the name of the thing pos- 
sessed. Thus, we can say, Mary's book, but not " hers book;" 
and yet we can say equally well, "It is Mary's," or, "it is 
hers." In both of these last expressions, the name of the thing 
possessed is not expressed but implied. [SeeGr. Ap.XIV. An. 241.] 

6. Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written her's, 
it's, our's, your's, their's. 

Parsing. — The personal pronouns may be parsed 
briefly tkus ; I, the first personal pronoun, mascu- 
line (or feminine), in the nominative singular. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a pronoun? How are pronouns divided? What is a 
personal pronoun ? Why is it called personal ? What are they ? 
Decline the first — the second — the third. Of what person is I? — 
thou ? — he, she, it ? What does the first person denote ? — the 
second? — the third? To what class do myself, thyself, &c. be- 
long ? In what cases are they used ? How are they applied in 
the nominative ? — in the objective ? How is you applied ? — thou ? 
—it ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Go over the following list of pronouns and tell their person. Go over them 
again and tell their gender : again, and tell their number : again, and tell their case : 
and lastly, tell their gender, number, and case, together. 

I, thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, 
thee, them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, 
I, me, them, us, we, thou, thine, ye, ours, yours. 

2. Point out the pronouns in the following exercise. Parse them by telling their 
person, gender, number, and case; thus, "me," apron. lst.pers. masc. sing, the 
objective. 

a Point out the nouns and parse them ; the adjectives and parse them. Com- 
pare them. 

4. Read over each sentence and tell what each of the pronouns stands for; 
thus, me stands for the speaker ; you for the person spoken to, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 

Give me the pears you bought of him ; I like them 
better than the apple he bought; it was sour. She 
told us what we said to her and they heard her. Put 
it on, will you ? He likes them because they are sweet. 
Take them to John. 1 gave them to her. We will do 
it, if you wish. The men said they would do it. The 
girl said she did not know them. The boy thought h/ 
knew them. You and I went with them to meet her 
after she had seen him. He and I can do it, though 
you cannot. James bought that book ; it is therefore 
his, and not hers. 

5. Take any easy reading lesson, and go over, it in the same way. 



LESSON XIII. 

Of Relative Pronouns. 

[Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

1. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, and 
connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun before it, 
called the antecedent; as, a The master who taught us." 

The antecedent is commonly a noun or pronoun; sometimes a 
clause of a sentence; as. 

The boy who reads; 

He "who does well, will be rewarded; 

James is sick, which accounts for his absence. 

ILLUSTRATION.— The proper use of the relative,is to connecta defining or lim- 
iting clause with an antecedent noun or pronoun for the purpose of farther describ- 
ing it. The relative clause serves the same purpose as an adjective or other de- 
fining word, and consequently must always stand in the same sentence with the 
antecedent or word described. Indeed, an adjective will sometimes be equiva- 
lent to the relative and its clause ; thus, " The man who is good is happy ; " and 
" the good man is happy," mean the same thing. Here the relative clause, " who 
is good," limits and describes the word man preceding it. It is not any man, nor 
every man, nor the rich man, but the good man, that is happy. 

2. The relative pronouns are who, which, that, ami 



30 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

what. Who and which are alike in both numbers; 
and are thus declined : 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 

Nom. Who Which 

Poss. Whose Whose 

Obj. Whom Which. 

3. Who is applied to persons ; as, the boy who 
reads: 

And also to inferior animals, and things without life, when 
they are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 

4. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things 
without life ; as, the dog which barks ; the book 
which was lost: 

And also to collective nouns composed of persons; as, "the 
court of Spain which;" "the company which." And likewise 
after the name of a person used merely as a word; as, " The 
court of Queen Elizabeth, which was but another name for pru- 
dence and economy." 

Which was formerly applied to persons as well as things, and 
is so used in the common version of the Scriptures. 

5. That is often used as a relative, to prevent the 
too frequent repetition of who or which. It is inde- 
clinable, and applied both to persons and things. 

6. What is applied to things only, and is never used 
but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This is what 
I wanted"=^a£ which I wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE. 

I. Whoever, whosoever, whatever, and whatsoever, are also 
used as compound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and 
a general, or indefinite antecedent; as, " Whosoever committeth 
sin, is the servant of sin;" that is, " any one," or " every one 
who committeth sin, &c." " Whatsoever things are of good re- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

port;" i.e. " All things (without exception) which are of good 
report.-' [See Gr. § 59, Rule in. An. & Pr. Gr. T52.] 

2 Which and what are sometimes used as adjectives, and 
have a noun following them,- as, " Tell me what books you are 
reading;" " Which things are an allegory." In this sense, which 
applies either to persons or things, and in meaning is equivalent 
to this or these. 

3. Who, and also which and what, without a noun following, 
are sometimes used as indefinite pronouns; as, I do not know 
who will be our next President. 

Of Interrogative Pronouns. 

In asking questions, who^ ichich, and what are 
called Interrogative pronouns. 

As interrogatives, who is applied to persons only; 
which and what, either to persons or things. What 
admits of no variation. 

Parsing. — The relative is parsed by stating its 
gender, number, case, and antecedent; (the gender 
and number being always the same as those of the 
antecedent) thus, ." The boy who. 5 ' — " W7w" is a 
relative pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singu- 
lar, and refers to " boy" as its antecedent. 

QUESTIONS. 
"What is a relative pronoun ? "What is the word to which it re- 
lates called? What is the proper use of the relative pronoun? 
What are the relative pronouns ? What is who applied to ? 
What is which applied to ? Why is that used as a relative ? To 
what is it applied? What sort of a relative is what ? What 
does it include? What sort of words are whoever, &c. ? When 
which and what are followed by nouns, what part of speech are 
they ? What are the interrogative pronouns ? Why are they 
called interrogative? As an interrogative, what is who applied 



32 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

to? — which? — what? In parsing the relative, what is mention- 
ed? * How are the gender and number of the relative known* 

EXERCISES. 

1. Is it proper to say — the man who, or the man which? why? 

the dog who, or the dog which? why? 

the tree who, or the tree which? why? 

the family who, or the family which ? why ? 

2. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the word to which it 
relates ; also the interrogatives. 

3. What is the use of the relative in the first sentence ? in the second? in tho 
third? &c. (See Illustration, p. 29.) 

The boy who studies will improve. I love the man 
who tells the truth, but all hate him who deals in false- 
hood. Do you remember the man whom we met ? 
There is the book which you lost. It is the same book 
that you bought. That is the lady who has been kind 
to us, and whose hand is ever open to the poor. It is 
the hand of the diligent that maketh rich. He that 
giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord. The temple 
which Solomon built. "Who gave you that book, which 
you prize so much ? Which house is yours ? He who 
preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, 
and whom I serve, is eternal. 



LESSON XIV. 

Of Adjective Pronouns. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

There are four sorts of Adjective pronouns; viz., 
the Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and 
Indefinite. 

1. The possessive pronouns are such as denote 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

possessioji or property. They are my, thy, his, her 
our, your, their, its, 0102. 

2. The distributive pronouns represent objects as 
taken separately. They are each, every, either, 

' er. 

3. The demonstrative pronouns point out objects de- 
finitely. They are this and that, with their plurals, 
•these and those. 

4. The indefinite pronouns denote persons or 
things indefinitely. They are none, any, all, such^ 
whole, some, both, one, other. The two last are de- 
clined like nouns. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. These pronouns are called adjective, because like adjec- 
tives they either are. or may be. followed by a noun. 

2. Possessive pronouns have the same meaning as the possess- 
ive case of the personal pronouns to which they relate, but are 
used differently. The possessive pronoun must always have a 
noun after it. the possessive case of the personal, never, as it -al- 
ways refers to a noun previously expressed- thus, 

Possessive Pronoun. Possessive Case. 

This is my book This book is mine 

That is her pen That pen is hers 

This is your hat This hat is yours 

It is their house The house is theirs 
-. Chen is added to another possessive to make it emphatic; as "my own;" 
u their own," "the boy's own book.' 1 

3. His and her, followed by a noun, are possessive pronouns; 
not followed by a noun, they are personal pronouns. 

4. That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative, 
and sometimes a conjunction; thus, 

Bern. That book is mine. 

Rel. It is the same that I bought. 

Conj. I read, that I may learn. 



34 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

5 Among indefinites may also be reckoned such words as no, 
few, many, several, and the- like; — the compounds whoever, what- 
ever, whichsoever, &c. ; and who, which, and what, in responsive 
sentences. 

6. None is used in both numbers; but it cannot .be joined to a 
noun. 

Parsing. — Adjective pronouns are parsed by stat- 
ing their class, and the noun to which they belong* 
In demonstratives, state also the number; thus, 

" My book." My is a possessive adjective pronoun; refers to 
" book." 

QUESTIONS. 
How many sorts of adjective pronouns are there ? Name them. 
Why called adjective pronouns ? What is a possessive pronoun? 
Name the possessive pronouns? What is a distributive pronoun? 
Name them — A demonstrative pronoun? Name them — An in- 
definite pronoun? Name them. In what 'are possessive pro- 
nouns and the possessive case of personal pronouns the same ? 
In what do they differ ? Give an example of the use of each 
How is "own" used? When are his and her possessives ?— 
when personals? In how many different ways is " that" used* 
How is "none" used? How are adjective pronouns parsed ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the adjective pronouns,and parse them ; 
the nouns, and parse them : 

My book, her shoes, your horse, their father, his 
brother, every hour, that table, these quills. This is 
my book ; that book is yours. Where is my hat ? These 
apples are good ; give some to your brothers. I will 
give one to each. I have given them all away, every 
one. Every day try to do good to some person. This 
book will do as well as that one. Every boy should 
keep his own books. Do good to all men — injury to 
none 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

LESSON XV 

EXERCISES 
On Nouns, Articles, Adjectives^ and Pronouns. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the articles and parse them;— the nouns 
and parse them;— the adjectives and parse them;— the proaouns and parse them: 

I found my hat upon your table ; but where is yours? 
Who put that glove in my cap ? Have you seen the 
book which my father gave to me ? That rod of yours 
is longer than mine, but not so long as John's. Those 
trees have lost their leaves. Every book on that shelf 
is mine ; I will give you a list of them. Keep this 
knife for my sake ; it is a good one. All men are mor- 
tal ; time waits for no one ; a wise man will improve 
every moment to some useful purpose. An idle man 
will come to poverty ; but he that is diligent increases 
his store. They that walk with the wise shall be wise ; 
but a companion of fools shall be destroyed. 

[1. Review thoroughly from Lesson X., answering prompfly and accurately all 
the questions. 

2. Review from the beginning, reciting accurately, all the definitions and rules, 
and answering the questions. Tins may require two or three recitations.] 



LESSON XVI. 
Of Verbs. 

1. A Verb is a word used to express the act, being, 
or state of its subject; as, I write; he is; time flies 

2. Verbs are of two kinds; Transitive and Intran- 
sitive. 



db PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3. A Transitive Verb expresses an act done by 
one person or thing to another ; as, James strikes the 
table ; The table is struck by James. 

4. An Intransitive Verb expresses the being, or 
state of its subject, or an act not done to another ; as, 
I am, he sleeps, you run. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The use of the verb in simple sentences is, to affirm or de- 
clare. That of which it affirms or declares is called its subject, 
or nominative. 

2. Transitive verbs include all those which express an actthat 
passes over from the actor to an object acted upon; as. He loves 
us. Here "He" is the actor, "loves" expresses the act, and 
us, the object loved, or acted upon. The same thing can be ex- 
pressed by another form; thus, "We are loved by him." Of 
these two forms of the verb, the first is called the active voice, 
and the second, the passive voice. 

Intransitive verbs include all verbs not transitive, whether they 
express action or not; and they have only one form; namely, that 
of the active voice; as, I am; you walk; they run. A few have 
the passive form, but the sense is the same in both; as, " I am 
come;" and, u I have come" 

3. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, by add- 
ing a noun of the same, or similar signification with themselves, 
as an object; thus, intransitive, I run; transitive, I run a race. 

4. The same verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and 
sometimes in an intransitive sense; thus, transitive, " Charity 
thinketh no evil;" intransitive, " Think on me." 

5. Transitive and intransitive verbs may be distinguished by 
the sense, as follows: 

1st. A transitive active verb requires an object after it to com- 
plete the sense; as, The boy studies grammar. An intransi- 
tive verb requires no object after it, but the sense is complete 
without it; as. He sits, you ride. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. *J7 

2d. Every transitive active verb can be changed into the passive 
form; thus, "James strikes the table," can be changed into 
" The table is struck by James." But the infransitive verb 
cannot be so changed; thus, I smile, cannot be changed into I 
am smiled. 

3d. In the use of the transitive verb, there are always three things 
implied; the actor, the act, and the object acted upon In the 
use of the intransitive, there are only two — the subject or thing 
spoken of, and the state, or action attributed to it. 

ILLUSTRATION.— The verb is the most important part of speech. It is a 
necessary word in every sentence. Without it, we can neither affirm nor deny, 
nor express any fact or thought It was therefore called the Verb, that is, the 
word, by way of eminence, or of all others the most important As we wish to 
express an act or state in a great variety of ways; as present, past, future, actual, 
contingent, conditional, &c, so there is a great variety of forms assumed by the 
verb in order to express those things. It is. therefore, very necessary for the pupil 
to be well acquainted with this part of speech. At this stage, two things must be 
attended to ; both of them very important. 

1. The first thing is, to distinguish the verb from every other part of speech. 
This can easily be done, if the pupil will only remember, that every word that 
tells us what a person or thing does, or what is done to a person or tiling, is a verb. 
Thus, when we say, "John writes;" "the boys study;" "the dog was killed;" 
we know that "writes" is a verb, because it tells us what "John" does; that 
"study " is a verb, because it tells us what " the boys " do; and that "was kill- 
ed" is a verb, because it tells us what was done to "the dog;" and so of others. 

2. The second thing is to know when a verb is transitive and when intransi- 
tive. Now, when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, or what 
is done to one person or thing by another, the verb is transitive. Thus, when it 

• is said "James eats apples ;" we know, first, that "eats" is a verb, because it 
tells what James does; and secondly, that it is transitive, because it tells what 
James does to the apples. 

But when that which a person or thing does, is not done to another person or 
thing, the verb is intransitive. Thus, in the sentence, " James runs," we know 
that "runs" is a verb, because it tells what James does; and that it is intransi- 
tive, because what James does is not done to any other person or thing. 

3. Verbs that denote merely to be or exist, are always intransitive. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a verb ? How many classes of verbs are there? What 
is a transitive verb? — an intransitive? What is the use of the 
verb in simple sentences ? What is the subject of a verb ? What 
does the word transitive mean ? — intransitive ? How many voices 
has the transitive verb t — the intransitive ? How do you know 
4 



38 PRACTICAL LESSONS JJS 

which word in a sentence is a verb ? How do you know whether 
it is transitive or intransitive? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, point out the verbs and tell how you know them 
to be verbs ; thus, " learn_" is a verb, because it tells us what " boys " do ; " rides" 
is a verb, because it tells us what " a man" does, &c. 

2. Tell which verbs are transitive, aud which intransitive, and how you know 
them to be so ; thus, '- learn" is transitive, because it tells what boys do to lessons ; 
"rides" is intransitive, because what "a man" does, is not done to any other 
person or tiling. 

Boys' learn lessons. A man rides. "We read a book. 
My dog barks. The fire burns. The fire burns me. 
He took their apples. You saw them. We touched it. 
They strike her. I threw a stone at his window. They 
killed my rabbit. The horses eat their corn. The cows 
drink water. I can ride well. A ride improves the 
health. That man walks fast. A long walk tires me. 
[ love her and you. 

In the following sentences, it takes two, and sometimes three words to make the 
verb ; and these two or three are always parsed together as one word. 

I will water the garden. James can write a letter. 
You may ride on my horse. Kobert will give a book to 
you. Yes, he w r ill give you a book. You must light 
the candle. Your father has sold his horse. I have 
bought him. John will brush your coat. He should, 
have brushed it before. James will have written his 
letter before night. He may have written it already. 



LESSON XVII. 

Division, of Verbs. 

[Review thoroughly the preceding Lesson.] 

1. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Reg- 
ular. Irregular^ and Defective. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 

2. A Regular verb is one that forms its Past tense 
in the Indicative active, and its Past participle by 
adding ed to the Present; as, Present, love; Past, 
loved; Past participle, loved. 

3. An Irregular verb is one that does not form 
its Past tense in the Indicative active, and its Past 
participle by adding ed to the Present ; as, Present, 
write; Past, wrote; Past participle, written. 

A Defective Verb is one in which some of the 
parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly 
Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 
The Auxiliary, or helping verbs, by the help of 
which verbs -are principally inflected, are the follow- 
ing, which, as auxiliaries, are used only in the pres- 
ent and the past tense ; viz : 

must 



t. Do, 


have, 


shall, 


wffl, 


may, 


can, 


am, 


t. Did, 


had, 


should, 


WOUld, 


might, 


could, 


was, 



The verb to be is used as an auxiliary in all its tenses. 
Am, do. and have, are also principal verbs. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The auxiliary (or helping) verbs are so called, because, by 
their help, the verb is enabled to express varieties of time and 
manner of acting or being, which it could not do without them. 
The auxiliary always stands before its verb, and the two are re- 
garded in parsing as one word; as, I will write; he has written, 
we may write, Sec. 

2. Of the auxiliaries, shall implies duty or obligation; will, 
purpose or resolution; may, liberty; can, ability. The past tense 
of these verbs is should, would, might, could,- but still they ex- 
press time very indefinitely 



40 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



3 Jn affirmative sentences, will, in the first person, intimates 
resolution and promising; as, " I will go;" in the second and 
third, it commonly foretels; as, " You will be happy." 

Shall, in the first person, only foretels; as, u I shall go to- 
morrow;" — in the second and third, it promises, commands, or 
threatens; as, V Thou shalt not steal." 

QUESTIONS. 
How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a regular 
verb ? — an irregular verb ? — a defective verb ? What are the prin- 
cipal defective verbs? Why are auxiliary verbs so called? 
What verbs are principal verbs as well as auxiliary? How 
are the auxiliaries shall and will distinguished? 



EXERCISES. 

1. Put the following regular verbs into the Past tense and Past participle: 

Fear, love, look, hope, show, learn, move, wash, clean, 
walk, desire, return, oblige, form, force, punish, support, 
turn, touch, disturb, place, try, deny, cry, delay. 

2. Change the following verbs from the Past tense into the Present : 

Marked, protected, composed, favored, turned, hated, 
mixed, believed, wounded, rushed, preached, hunted, 
crushed, preached, warned, pleaded, loved, ended. 

3. In the following list tell which verbs are regular and which are irregular;— 
and why. 



Present. 


Past. 


. Past Participle. 


Spoil 


spoiled 


spoiled 


Go 


went 


gone 


Take 


took 


taken 


Write 


wrote 


written 


Hope 


hoped 


hoped 


Run 


ran 


run 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Spy 


spied 


spied 


Obey 


obeyed 


obeyed 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

LESSON XVIII. 

Inflection of Verbs. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons.] 

To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, 
hers, and Persons-, — also Participles. 

OF VOICE. 

Voice is a particular form of the verb which 
shows the relation of the subject, or thing spoken 
of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

In English, the transitive verb has always two 
voices; the Active and Passive. 

1. The Active voice represents the subject of 

the verb as actiDg upon some object* as, James 

strikes the table. 

Here the verb :: strikes^' in the active voice, indicates what its 
subject, " James." does to the object, table. 

2. The Passive voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acted upon by some person or thing; as, 
The table is struck by James. 

Here the verb " is struck" in the passive voice, indicates 
what is done to the subject, u table" by James. 

3. The passive voice is formed by adding the past 
participle to the auxiliary verb u to be" through all 
its moods and tenses. [See Lesson XXVII.] 

4. Intransitive verbs have not a passive voice : A 
few admit a passive form, but not a passive sense; 
thus, I am come, which means the same thing as, I 
have come. 

4* 



42 FRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

5 When a verb, usually intransitive, is made 
transitive, [Less. XVI. Obs. 3,] it is then capable 
of a passive voice; as, u My race is run." 

ILLUSTRATION.— Both the active and the passive voice express precisely the 
same act, but each in a different way. With the active voice, the subject (that is, 
the person or thing spoken of,) does the act, or is active ; with the passive voice, 
the subject is acted upon, or is passive. The words active and passive then strictly 
belong to the subject, but are properly used to distinguish those voices or forms of 
the verb which show that the subject acts or is acted upon : that is, the form of 
the verb which represents its subject as active, is called the Active voice ; and 
that which represents its subject as passive, is called the Passive voice. 

Remembering then that the subject or nominative of a verb, is the person or 
thing spoken of, when, in any sentence, we see that that subject acts, we know that 
the verb is in the active voice; thus, when we say, " Caesar conquered Gaul," we 
see that " Caesar," the person spoken of, is represented as acting, and therefore, 
" conquered" is in the active voice. Again, when we say, " Gaul was conquered 
by Caesar," the subject or thing spoken of is Gaul; it is represented as acted 
upon, and therefore, "was conquered" is in the passive voice. 

QUESTIONS. 
What belongs to the inflection of verbs ? What is meant by 
Voice ? How many voices has the transitive verb in English ? 
What are they ? How does the active voice represent its sub- 
ject ? How does the passive voice represent it? How is the 
passive voice formed? What voice have intransitive verbs? 
Have they ever a passive form ? Have they ever a passive sense ? 
When intransitive verbs are made transitive, can they be used in 
the passive voice ? 

EXERCISES. 

In each of the following sentences, the pupil may be questioned, as on the first, 
in the following manner: Who is the person spoken of in this sentence 1 ? Ans. 
John. What is said of John? Ans.— He studies. Does the word studies repre- 
sent John as acting, or as acted upon ? Ans.— As acting. In what voice then is 
"studies"? Ans. — Active voice. Change the sentence so as to make "gram- 
mar" the thing spoken of, and express the same meaning. Ans. — " Grammar is 
studied by John." Analyze this sentence in the same way as the other. 

John studies grammar. Cain slew Abel. Noah built 
the ark. The temple was built by Solomon. Colum- 
bus discovered America. Pride ruins thousands. Mos/ 
men are governed by custom. I have written a letter 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

LESSON XIX 

Of the Moods. 

(Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the 
signification of the verb. 

Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indicative, 
Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative mood declares the fact expressed 
by the verb simply, and without limitation ; as, He 
loves; He is loved. 

2. The Potential mood declares, not the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, but only its possibility ; or the 
liberty, power, will, or obligation, of the subject with 
respect to it ; as, 

The wind may blow; We may walk or ride; I can swim; He 
would not stay; You should obey your parents. 

3. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional, 
desirable, or contingent ', as, 

" If thy presence go not with us carry us not up hence." — " O 
that he toere wise!" 

This mood is subjoined to another verb, and dependent on it. 

4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits; as, 

Do this; Remember thy Creator; Hear, my people; Go thy 
way for this time. 

5. The Infinitive mood expresses a tiling in a gen- 
eral manner, without any distinction of number or 
person, and commonly has to before it; as, To love 



44 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



OBSERVATIONS. 
I The subjunctive mood differs from the indicative only in the 
second and third persons singular of the present tense. The verb 
" to be" differs also in the past tense. 

2. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the second 
person, singular and plural; because, in commanding, exhorting, 
&c. the language of address is always used; thus, "Let him 
love," is equivalent to, ''Let thou him love;" where Let is the 
proper imperative, and love the infinitive governed by it. [See 
Lesson LVIII. 1, 2.] 

3. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, 
having the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive; 
and hence it is used either as the subject of another verb, or as 
the object after it. [See Lesson XLL, Sub- Rule II!, and Less. 
XLII. Obs. Introd. to An. A Pr.Gr. Less. LXVI, Sub-rules land 2.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What is mood ? How many moods are there ? How does the 
Indicative mood express an action or state ?— the Potential? — the 
Subjunctive? — the Imperative? — the Infinitive? In what parts 
does the Subjunctive differ from the Indicative ? How many per- 
sons has the Imperative mood ? How may the Infinitive mood 
be considered ? As a verbal noun, what cases has it ? 

N. B. Exercises on this and the following Lesson will be bet- 
ter understood after the pupil has gone through Lesson XXIII. 
They are therefore omitted here. 



LESSON XX. 
Of Tenses, or Distinctions of Time. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons.] 

Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which serve 
to point out the distinctions of time. 

Time is naturally divided into Present, Past, and Future ; 
and an action may be represented, either as incomplete and con- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

tinning, or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives rise 

to six tenses, only two of which are expressed in English by a 

distinct form of the verb. The others are formed by the aid of 

auxiliary verbs,- thus, 

p„„., T $ Action continuing; as, I love, I do love, I am loving. 
rB£SEiT ' I Action completed'; as, I have loved. 

Past \ ■ Actian continuing; as. I loved, I did love, I was loving. 

I Action completed; as, I had loved. 
Future \ Action continuing; as. I shall or will love. 

I Action completed; as, 1 shall have loved. 

The tenses in English are six ; namely, the Pre- 
sent, the Present-perfect , the Past, the Past-perfect, 
the Future, and the Future- perfect. 



TEASES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The Indicative mood has all the six tenses ; they 
are used as follows : 

1. The Present tense expresses what is going on at 
the present time ; as, I love you. 

2. The Present-perfect tense represents an ac- 
tion or event as completed at the present time ; as, 
" John has cut his finger." " I have sold my horse." 
" I have done nothing this week." 

3. The Past tense expresses what took place in 
past time expressed or implied ; as, u God said, let 
there be light ;" " The ship sailed when the mail 
arrived." 

4. The Past-perfect tense represents- an action or 
event as completed at or before a certain past time ; as, 
u I had walked six miles that day ;" " All the judges 
had taken their places before Sir Roger came." 



46 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

5. The Future tense expresses what will take 
place in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and 
your hearts shall rejoice." 

6. The Future-perfect intimates that an action 
or event will be completed at or before a certain 
time yet future ; as, I shall have got my lesson before 
ten o'clock to-morrow. 

Note. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called Sim- 
ple tenses ; those with an auxiliary, are called Compound tenses. 

TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS. 

7. The Potential mood has four tenses ; the Present, 
the Present-perfect, the Past, and the Past-perfect. 

The tenses in this mood indicate the time, not of the act expressed 
by the verb, but of the liberty, power, will, or obligation, expressed 
by the auxiliary, or sign of the tense ; thus, " I may write," does 
not express the act of writing as present, but only the liberty to 
write, expressed by the auxiliary may. 

Hence the time expressed by the verb in this mood is less definite, 
and depends not so much on the tense as on other words with which it 
stands connected. This is the case especially with the Past tense. 
[See Gr. § 20, An. & Pr. Gr. 428-432.] 

8. The Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, has 
only the present tense. The verb to be has the pre- 
sent and the past. 

9. The Imperative mood may always be regarded 
as present ; i. e. the command, &c. is present, though 
the doing of the act commanded is future. 

10. The Infinitive mood has two tenses ; the Pre- 
sent and the Perfect. 

11. Participles have three tenses; the Present, 
the Past, and the Perfect ; as, hoving, loved, having 
loved. See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 455. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 

1. The present tense is used to express, 1st — the simple existence 
of the fact ; as, " He speaks:' 2d — what is habitual or always true ; 
as, " He takes snuff." 3d. In historical narration, it is used for the 
past ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul," for " Caesar left G-aul." 

2. The Present-perfect is used, 1st. To express what has taken 
plats at the present time, or in a period of time of which the 
present forms a part ; as, " My father has arrived," 2d — To express 
an act or state continued through a period of time reaching to, and 
including the present ; as, " He has [now] studied' six months." 3d. 
— To express an act long since completed, when the reference is not 
to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished as still existing ; as, 
" Cicero has written orations." 

3. The time indicated by the Past tense is regarded as entirely 
past, however near ; as, " I saiohim a moment ago." It is also used 
to express what was customary in ?ast time ; a3, " She attended 
church regularly." 

4. The Past tenses of the Potential, and the Subjunctive mood, are 
less definite in regard to time, than the same tenses in the Indicative, 

QUESTIONS. 

What are tenses ? How is time naturally divided ? In each of these, 
how may an action or state be represented ? How many tenses are 
there in the English verb? How many has the Indicative mood ? What 
are they ? What does the Present tense express ? — the Present-per- 
fect ?— the Past ?— Past-perfect ?— the Future ?— the Future-perfect ? 

How many tenses has the Potential mood ? — the Subjunctive ? — 
the Imperative ? — the Infinitive ? — the Participles ? In what different 
ways is the Present tense used ? — the Present-perfect ? — the Past ? 



LESSON XXI. 
Of Number- and Person. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

1. Every tense of the verb, except in the Infini- 
tive mood, has two Numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural ; and each of these has three Persons, except, 
in the Imperative, which has only the Second. 



48 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

2. The Fiust person asserts of the person speak- 
ing; its subject is- always I in the singular, and we 
in the plural; as, I write; we write. 

3. The Second person asserts of the person spok- 
en to; its subject is always thou in the singular, 
and ye or you in the plural; as, Thou writest; ye or 
you write. 

4. The Third person asserts of the person or 
thing spoken of; its subject is any noun, or the pro- 
noun he : she, it, or they, used instead of it; as, John 
reads; he walks; they run. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The first, second, and third persons plural, are always like the 
first person singular. 

2. The second person singular of the present indicative active 
ends in st or est ; as, thou lovest ; thou readest; — of the past, gene- 
rally in st ; as, thou lovedst. All the other persons in both num- 
bers in this tense are alike. 

3. Verbs that end in s, sh, ch, z, x, or o, form the third person 
singular of the present indicative active, by adding es, or, in the 
grave style, eth; as, He teaches, or teacheth. All others add s or 
th ; as, He loves, or loveth. 

4. Verbs in y with, a consonant before it, change y into i before 
the terminations est, es, eth, ed; but not before ing; as, try, 
triest, tries, trieth, tried, trying. 

5. The infinitive mood, or a clause of a sentence, sometimes 
expresses that of which a person speaks, and is therefore the sub- 
ject of the verb. When it does so it is always regarded as the 
third person, and a pronoun standing instead of it is in the neuter 
gender; as, To play is pleasant; it promotes health. [Sub-Rule 
II., Lesson XLL, An. and Pr. Gr. Less. LXVI. S. Rule 1.] 

QUESTIONS. 
How many numbers has each tense ? What mood has no dis- 
tinction of number or person ? How many persons are in each 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

number ? What mood has only the second person ? Of whom does 
the first person assert ? "What is its subject in the singular ? — in 
the plural? Of whom does the second person assert ? What is 
its subject in the singular? — in the plural? Of whom or what 
does the third person assert 7 What is its subject? What parts 
in each tense are alike ? How is the second person singular form- 
ed in the present indicative? — in the past tense? When is the 
third person singular of the present indicative formed by adding 
es, or eth 1 — When by adding s, or th 1 How is it formed when 
the verb ends in y after a consonant? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the second person singular of the following verbs, and how it is formed. 

2. Tell the third person, and how it is formed. 

3. Prefix tliou to each verb, when put in the second person singular; as, "thou 
tcllest," &c; and he to each, when put in the third; as, "he tells." 

Tell, speak, sleep, walk, read, learn, smell, see, hear, 
taste, touch, handle, write, pay, eat, drink, warm, teach, 
go, do, fill, play, stand, sell, buy, study, copy. 

4. In the following words, tell which are in the first person, and why;— in the 
second, and why;— in the third, and why. 

5. Prefix to each verb, in the following list, the pronoun of the same person and 
number as the verb; as, /love, thou lovest, &c. 

Love, lovest, loves, runs, runnest, sleep, teach, preach- 
es, teachest, -writes, write, eats, goes, goest, go, tell, 
teaches, speaks, read, readest, sews, pay, look, walks, 
jump, hop, skip, laughs, sing, cry, criest, study, studies. 



LESSON XXII. 

Of the Participles. 

[Review lour preceding Lessons , and answer promptly and correctly all tho 
questions.] 

A Participle is a word which, as a verb, expresses 
an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies a noun 
or substantive; as, There is a boy amusing himself; 

5 



50 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Devoted to study he soon became learned ; Having 
finished our task, we may play. 

Verbs have three participles \ the Present, the Past, 
and the Perfect; as, Loving , loved, having loved : — 
Being loved, hved, having been loved. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The Present Participle active ends always in ing, and has an 
active signification; as, James is building a house. In many 
verbs, however, it has also a passive signification ; as, The house 
was building, when the wall fell. 

2. The Past Participle has the same form in both voices. * In 
the active voice,its signification is active ; as, He has concealed a 
dagger under his cloak ■; — In the passive voice, its signification is 
passive ; as ; He has a dagger concealed under his cloak. 

3. The Perfect participle is always compound, and has an ac- 
tive signification in the active voice, and a passive signification in 
the passive voice. 

4. The participle in -ing is often used as a verbal or participial 
noun, having the nominative and objective cases, but not the pos- 
sessive. In this character, the participle of a transitive verb 
may still retain the government of the verb, or it may be divested 
of it by inserting the preposition of after it, in which case an ar- 
ticle or adjective should always precede it. [See examples Gr. 
Syntax, § 64 ; An. & Pr. Gr. 462.] 

5. Some participles, laying aside the idea of time, and simply 
qualifying a noun, become participial adjectives, and as such ad- 
mit of comparison; as, An amusing — a more amusing — a most 
amusing story. A most devoted friend. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a participle ? How many participles are there ? Has 
the participle in ing ever a passive signification ? Give an ex- 
ample. How is the perfect participle used ? Describe the use of 
the present participle as a verbal noun. How do participles be- 
come adjectives ? "What are such adjectives usually called? Do 
they admit of comparison? 

[Before proceeding to the next Lesson review thoroughly from the beginning in 
two or three recitations. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

LESSON XXIII. 
Of the Conjugation of Verbs. 

[The pupil should be thoroughly drilled in this lesson, till he is able to tell 
every part at once and correctly— and to give promptly any part of the verb 
that may be required.] 

1. The conjugation of a verb, is the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of its several moods, 
tenses, numbers, and persons. 

2. The active voice has two forms — the Common; 
as, I read, and the Progressive ; as, I am reading. 

Besides these, in the present and the past indicative active, there 
is a third form called the Emphatic ; as, I do read, I did read. The 
other tenses, and also the progressive and the passive form, are ren- 
dered emphatic by placing a peculiar stress of voice on the first 
auxiliary ; as, I have read — I am reading — it is read. 

3. In parsing, a verb is conjugated by giving its 
principal parts, as follows : — 

Present. Past. Past Part. 

Active. Love, Loved, Loved. 

Passive. Am loved, Was loved, Been loved. 

4. The regular verb, to love, in the common form, is 
inflected through all its moods and tenses, as follows : 







ACTIVE VOICE. 






PRINCIPAL PARTS. 


p 


resent, love. 


Past, loved. Past participle, loved. 
^~DICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE.* 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I love. 


1. We love. 


2. 


Thou lovest. 


2. Toulove. 


3. 


He loves (or 


loveth). 3. They love. 



* present tense. (Emphatic form) 

1. I do love 1. We do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does or doth love. 3. They do love. 



52 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have. 
l.'I have loved. 1. "We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved 

PAST TENSE.* 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved. 

3. He loved, 3. They loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign, had. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will.— Inflect with each. 

1. 1 shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have.— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. "We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved. 



*past tense. {Emphatic form.) 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. • . 2. You may love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

PRESENT- PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT) . 
Signs, may have, can have,* must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT) . 
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved." 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
present tense (Subjunctive form) .f 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

* Can liave is not used in affirmative sentences- 

t The Present subjunctive is here given in two forms : 1st in the subjunctive 
or elliptical form, used when both contingency and futurity are implied; and 2d, 
the indicative form, used when contingency only, and not futurity is implied. In 
parsing, the latter should be called the " indicative used subjunctively," being 
the indicative mood in form, and rendered subjunctive only by the conjunction 
prefixed. This is true also of the other tenses in this mood. 

The emphatic forms of the present are, If I do love, if thou do love, if he do 
love, etc. ; of the past, // J did love, if thou didst love, etc. as in the indicative 



54 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

present tense (Indicative form) . 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou lovest. 2. If you love. 

3. 7/" he loves (or loveth). 3. If they love. 

present-perfect tense (perfect). 

1. If I have loved. 1. If we have loved. 

2. If thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved. 

3. If he has or hath loved. 3. If they have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I loved. » 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 2. 7/" you loved. 

3. If he loved. • 3. 1/ they loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 

l.Ifl had loved. 1. J/ we had loved. 

2. 7/ thou hadst loved. 2. If you had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. If I shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love. 

2. J/ thou shalt or wilt love. 2. 7/ you shall or will love 

3. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

l.Ifl shall or will have loved. 1.1/ we shall or will have loved. 
2.7/ thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2.7/ you shall or will have loved. 
3 .If he shall or will have loved . 3 .7/ they shall or will have loved 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you 
Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, To love. 

participles, 
present, Loving. Past, Loved. perfect, Having loved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

Pausing. — A verb is parsed by stating its kind, 
(i. e. whether transitive or intransitive,) its form, 
(whether regular or irregular,) conjugating it, and 
telling in what tense, mood, voice, number, and per- 
son, it is found; also its subject; thus, 

" He loves." Loves is a verb, transitive, regular; love, loved, 
loved; found in the present, indicative, active,; third person, sin- 
gular; and affirms of its subject, he. 

N. B. It is important in parsing to state every thing belonging 
to a word in as few words as possible, and always in the same 
order. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the conjugation of a verb? How is a verb conjugated? 
Conjugate the verb love in the active voice. Say the indicative 
present — past — future — the present-perfect — the past -perfect — 
future-perfect. Say the first person singular, in each tense — the 
second — the third — the first person plural — the second — the third. 
Say the emphatic form, in the present — in the past. "What are 
the signs (or auxiliaries) of the present-perfect? — the past-perfect? 
— the future? — the future-perfect? — the subjunctive present? — 
present-perfect? — past? — past-perfect? &c. What is the sign of 
the infinitive? 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Go over the following Exercise, and tell the tense, mood, and voice of each 

verb; thus, '••He loves," present, indicative, active. 

2. Go over it again, and tell the person and number; thus, loves, third person, 

singular. 

3. Go over it again, and join these together, and so tell the tense, mood, voice, 

number, and person; and always in this order; as, loves, present, indicative, 
active, third person, singular. 

In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, love Ihou, imperative, active, sec- 
ond person, singular. 

In the infinitive, omit the person and number, and say thus, To love; present, 
infinitive, active. 

In the participle, name only the tense and voice ; thus, loving; present participle, 
active. 
N. B. The pronoun is no part of the verb, but helps to shew its person and 

number: and the auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken separately, but always with 



56 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

the verb; so that the two words, and sometimes three, as in the past-perfect 
potential, are parsed together as one word ; thus, have loved, the present-perfect 
indicative, active, &c. 

N. B. This Exercise should be repeated till the pupil can do it correctly, rapidly, 
and easily, and without missing, either in the number or order of the things to 
be stated. 

He loves, they love, I have loved, you will love, thou 
teachest, they will learn, he has written, I had given, 
James will go, John may come, he might read, they 
would have studied, children play, boys studied, they 
did study. Write thou, come ye. To love, to sing, to 
have played, reading, sleeping, running, loved, learned, 
having loved, having gone, birds fly, horses galloped, 
the fire hums, the sun did shine, the moon has changed. 

N. B. Pupils may be required to make exercises of this kind for themselves. 

EXERCISE II. 

Before beginning this Exercise, let the pupil go back and review thoroughly Les- 
son XVI. and the exercises on it; then 

i. Tell which words are verbs, and why ; and whether transitive or intransitive, 
and why. 

2. Tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number, as in the preceding Exercise. 

3. Go over it again, and parse each verb by putting all these together ; thus, loves, 

is a verb, transitive, in the present, indicative, active, third person, singular. 

He loves us. I will love him. Good boys will study 
their lessons. Children love play. The dog killed my 
rabbit. James has written a letter. Cows eat hay. A 
fire warms the room. Bring some wood. I have studied 
grammar. Girls may write letters. Your sister can 
sing. He would like to hear a song. Give that book 
to me. I will give this hook to you. Lend me your 
pen. Children should obey their parents ; they should 
love God. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it. All 
men must die. Time waits for no man. Do good to 
all men. John will mend my pen ; I will thank him. 
You would ohlige me by assisting me to learn this les- 
son. Tell Henry to shut the door. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

EXERCISE III. 
1. The Nominative Case. 
N, B . A verb in the active voice tells what some person or thing 
That person or thing then is its subject, and is in the nom- 
inative case; thus, in the first sentence of the preceding Exercise, 
the word u loves" tells what "he" does; he, therefore, is its sub- 
ject, and is in the nominative case. 

Point out the verb in each sentence of the preceding Exercise; tell what word 
is its subject, and why! What case is the subject hi 7 

2. The Objective Case. 

A transitive verb in the active voice tells what its subject does 
to some other person or thing. That person or thing is the object 
of the verb, and is in the objective case. Thus, in the above sen- 
tence, -- He loves us," loves is a transitive verb, and tells what 
its subject, he, does to us. Us, then, is its object, and is in the 
objective case. 

The nominative, or subject, is usually before the verb; the ob- 
jective is usually after it. 

Point out the transitive verbs in the preceding Exercise. Tell what word is the 
object in each sentence, and what case it is in. 

EXERCISE IV. 
Parsing. 
Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order ; — 
the nouns as directed, Lesson VIII, p. 19 ; — the articles as directed, 
Lesson IX, p. 21 ; — the adjectives as directed, Lesson* XI, p. 25 ;— 
the pronouns as directed, Lesson XII, p. 28; and the verbs as di- 
rected in this Lesson, p. 55. 



LESSON XXIV. 

Negative Form of the Verb. 
The verb is made to deny by placing the word not after the sim 
pie form; as, " Thoulovest not;" and between the auxiliary and 
the verb in the compound form; as, "I do not love." When two 
auxiliaries are used, not is placed between them; as. I v:ould not 
have loved. 



58 PRACTICAL LESSONS LN 

In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first, as, 
Not to love; not loving. 

The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the 
present and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more 
common. The following synopsis will shew the manner of using 
the negative. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c. 

Pres. Pert. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c. 

Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, &c. 

Past Perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &c. 

Future. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c. 

Fut. Per. I. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have 
loved. loved, Sec. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present. 1. lean not love. . 2. Thou canst not love, &c. 
Pres. Perf. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have 

loved. loved, &c. 

Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, &c. 

Past. Perf. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have 
loved. loved, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, &c. 
The other tenses the same as in the indicative. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Sing. 2. Love not, or do not Plur. 2. Love not, or do not 
thou love. ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Not to love. Perf. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Not loving. Past Not loved. 

Perf. Not having loved. 



ENGLISH GKAMMAJL. 59 

LESSON XXV. 

Interrogative Form of the Verb. 

The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nominative 
or subject after the simple form ; as, Lovest thou ? and between 
the auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; as, Do I love? 
When there are two auxiliaries the nominative is placed between 
them : as, Shall I have loved ? 

The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, cannot 
have the interrogative form. 

The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. 
The following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the 
interrogative form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 1. Do I love ? 2. Dost thou love ? &c. 

Pres.Perf. 1. Have I loved ? 2. Hast thou loved ? &c. 
Past. 1. Did Hove? 2. Didst thou love ? &c. 

Past Perf. 1. Had I loved ? 2. Hadst thou loved ? 8cc. 
Future. 1. Shall I love ? 2. Wilt thou love ? 
Fut. Per. 1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved? &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present. 1. May I love ? 2. Canst thou love ? &c. 

Pres.Perf 1. May I have loved? 2. Canst thou have loved ? &c. 
Past. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love ? &c. 

Past Perf. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have 

loved? loved ? fce. 

Ops. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
negative either before or after the nominative; as, Do I not love? 
ir. Do not I love? 

QUESTIONS. 
How is a verb made negative? Where is the negative placed 
n the simple form? Where, in the compound form? Where, 
wnen there are two auxiliaries ? Where, in the infinitive and par- 
ticiples ? Say the indicative present in the negative form through- 
out; — the other tenses. 



60 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

How is the verb made interrogative ? Where is the nominative 
placed in the simple form ? Where, in the compound form ? Where, 
when there are two auxiliaries? What parts of the verb cannot 
be used interrogatively ? Say the indicative present throughout, 
interrogatively. Say the other tenses. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Put the verb,in the following sentences, into the negative form. 

2. Put the verb, in the following sentences,into the interrogative form. 

3. Distinguish the different parts of speech, and parse them, as in the preceding 
Exercise, IV. 

I love you. You loved me. James studies gram- 
mar. Your father has come. He will go soon. The 
ship foundered at sea. John would eat apples. Apples 
will grow on this tree. The horse will run a race. The 
fox had catched the goose. Rabbits eat clover. Study 
overcomes most difficulties. Labor promotes health. 
Wealth makes the man. Poverty scatters friends. The 
ships sail. The sun has set. The moon rose. The 
stars will shine. 

N. B. Let the pupils make similar exercises for themselves, and parse them. 



LESSON XXVI. 
The Verb TO BE. 

[The pupil should be drilled thoroughly in this Lesson, as in Lesson XXIII. ] 

The intransitive irregular verb To be, is inflected 
through all its moods and tenses, as follows : 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, am. Past, was. Past participle, been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. lam. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, here, 

1. I have been. 1. "We have been. 

2. Thon hast been. 2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was. 1. "We were. 

2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign, had. 

1. I had been. 1. "We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will.— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be. 1. "We shall be. 

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will Acre.— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been. 1. "We shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Liflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. "We maybe. 

2. Thou may st be. 2. You may be. 
3 He may be. 3. They may be. 



62 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Signs, may have, can have, or must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have heen. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2, You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

Signs, mighty could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE (Subjunctive foriti) . 

Singular Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be."' 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. I/hebe. 3. If they be. 

past tense {Subjunctive form) .* 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou were or wert 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 



*The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative with a con- 
junction prefixed ; thus, If I am, If I have been, If I was, If I had been, If I 
shall or will be, If I shall have been. 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 



63 



Singular. 
2. Be, or be thou. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Plural. 
2. Be, or be ye or you. 



INFINITIVE MOOD 
PRESENT TENSE. • PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been 



present, Being. 



PAE.TICIPLES. 
past. Been. 

EXERCISES. 



perfect, Ha yim>; been. 



1. Let the pnpil tell the tense, mood, person, 3Md?wmber of the following words- 
parts of the verb to be ; thus, " Am," present, indicative, first person singular. 

2. Let him parse the same words; thus, "Am," is a verb, intransitive, irregu- 
lar ; am, was, been; in the present, &c. 

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
has been, we have been, hadst been, he had been, you 
have been, she has been, we were, they had been. 

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they 
shall be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been 
they will have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 

I can be, mayst be, canst be, she may be, you may 
be, he must be, they should be, mightst be, he would 
be, it could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have 
been, wast. 

We may have been, mayst have been, they may have 
been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 
have been ; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we 
were, I be. 

Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be 
ye, been, having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 



64 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3 In'ths following sentences, parse the words in order; thus, "Snow," is a 
noun, neuter, the nominative singular, because the subject of is : " 7s," is a verb, 
intransitive, irregular ; am, was, been; in the present, indicative, third person, sin- 
gular: "white," is an adjective, qualifies snoio; compared, white, whiter, whitest. 

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been 
younger; she has been happy; it had been late ; we 
are old ; you will be wise ; it will be time ; if they be 
thine ; be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich ; 
they should be virtuous; thou mightst be wiser; they 
must have been excellent scholars ; they might have 
been powerful. 



LESSON XXVII. - 
Progressive Form of the Active Voice. 
The Progressive form of the verb is inflected by 
prefixing the verb to be, through all its moods and 
tenses, to the present participle; thus. 

Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, &c. 

Pres. Perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, &c. 
Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, <fec. 

Past Perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, &c. 
Future. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, &c. 

Fut. Perf. 1. I shall or will 2. Thou shalt or wilt have 

have been writing. ' been writing, &c. 

In this manner go through the other moods and tenses. 

Note. Verbs which, in the eommon form imply continuance, do 
not usually admit the progressive ,form ; thus, " I am loving" (if 
proper), would mean nothing more than, " I love." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive form : 

He writes, they read, thou teachest, we have learned, 
he had written, they go, you will build, I ran, John has 
done it, we taught, he stands, he stood, they will stand, 
they may read, we can sew, you should study, we might 
have read. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form : 

We are writing, they were singing, they have been 
riding, we might be walking, I may have been sleeping, 
they are coming, thou art teaching, they have been eat- 
ing, he has been moving, we have been defending, 
they had been running. 

3. Parse the above verbs, in the progressive form; thus, " We are writing;" 
"are writing," is a verb, transitive, irregular; write, wrote, written; [See Lesson 
XXIX.] in the present, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
The Passive voice is inflected by adding the 
past participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through 
all its moods and tenses; thus; 
Pres. Am loved. Past, Was loved. Past Part., Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

PRESENT-PEREECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved 3. Thev were loved. 



66 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign, had. 

1. I had been loved. 1. .We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. "We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have beenloved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst beloved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Signs, may have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, icould, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT) . 
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. Yon might have beenloved. 

3. He might have been loved. 8. They might have been loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
present tense (Subjunctive form) . 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. , 2. If you be loved 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

past tense. (Subjunctive form) .* 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou were or wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. 

Perfect, Having been loved. 



♦The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative with a con- 
junction prefixed ; thus, If lam loved, If I have been loved, If I was loved, If I 
had been loved, Tf I shall or will be loved, If I shall have been loved 



08 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

EXERCISE I. 
On the Passive Voice. 

1. Tt;il the tense, mood, person, and number of the following words in the pas- 
sive voice ;— change them into the active form. 

2. Go over the exercise again, and parse each word in order ; thus, " They" is 
the third personal pronoun, masculine, (or feminine) the nominative plural, the 
subject of are loved: "are loved" is a verb, transitive, in the present^ indicative, 
passive, third person, plural, because its subject, " they," is third person, plural 

They are loved ; we were loved , thou art loved ; if 
is loved ; she was loved ; he has "been loved ; you have 
been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; 
we shall be loved ; thou wilt be loved ; they will be 
loved ; I shall have been loved ; you will have been 
loved. 

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be 
loved; they might be loved; ye would* be loved; they 
should be loved; I could be loved; thou mayst have 
been loved ; it may have been loved ; you might have 
been loved ; if I be loved ; if thou wert loved ; though 
we be loved ; though they be loved. Be thou loved ; 
be ye loved; you be loved. To be loved; loved; hav- 
ing been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved. 

3. Change the preceding, from the passive to the active, progressive form. 

EXERCISE II. 

On the Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, promiscuously . 

1. In the following Exercise, tell which words are articles— which are nouns— 
and why; — which are adjectives — and why; — which are pronouns — and why, — 
which are verbs — and why. 

2. Point out the verbs ; tell whether transitive or intransitive — and why ; — active 
or passive— and why. 

3. Go over again, and point out the nouns, and tell whether proper or common— 
and why ;— singular or plural— and why ;— their gender— and why. 

He has learned his lesson. I loved him because he 
was good. A good man will forgive those who may 
have injured him. Love your enemies; do good to 
them that hate you. Remember your Creator in the 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 

days of your youth. We are commanded to love our 
neighbor as ourselves. That book was printed in New 
York. The winter has been cold, but the ground was 
covered with snow. Columbus discovered America. 
America was discovered by Columbus. I have been 
studying grammar. It is never too late to learn that 
which is good and useful. Peter Parley has written 
some pleasing books. Good boys love reading. Study 
to understand what you read. 

4. Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order, as directed in 
preceding Exercises. 

N. B. It will now be important to review thoroughly and re- 
peatedly from Lesson XXIII., particularly Lessons XXIII., 
XXVI., and XXVIII. , with the Exercises under them. This will 
require several recitations. And while that is going on, the pupil 
may also go forward with Lesson XXIX., conjugating from 
memory the irregular verbs, in such portions daily as the teacher 
may direct. 



LESSON XXIX 

Of Irregular Verbs. 
1. An Irregular, verb is one that does not form 
both its past tense, and past participle by adding ed 
to the present ; as, Jim, was, been. 



Present. Past. 


Past Part. 


Abide abode 


abode 


Am was 


been 


Arise arose 


arisen 


Awake awoke r* 


awaked 


Bake baked 


baken b 


Bear, to bring forth, bare or bore 


born 



* Those verbs which are conjugated regularly as well as irregularly are mark- 
ed with an r. 



70 


PRACTICAL LESSONS 


lis 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Bear, to carry 


bore or bare 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beaten or beat 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Bend 


bent r 


bent r 


Bereave 


bereft 


bereft r 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden 


Bind un- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build re- 


built, r 


built, r 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought. 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught r 


caught r 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


clave r 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad r 


Come fig- 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crewR 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to challenge \ 


is r dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt r 


dealt r 


Dig 


dug R 


dug R 


Do jnis- un- 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 



ENGLISH GKAJttMAR. 



71 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Dwell 


dwelt r 


dwelt r 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Fall be- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbeai 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get be- for- 


gat or got 


gotten or got 


Gild 


gilt r 


giltR 


Gird be- en- 


. girt r 


girtR 


Give for- mis- 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave en- r 


graved 


graven r 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung 


hung* 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove r 


hoven r 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn r 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold be- with- 


held 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knit r 


knit or knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 



j, to take away life by hanging, is regular; as, The robber was lunnged, 
but the gown was hung up. 



72 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



Present. 


Past 


Past ParticvpU 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead rats- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain or lien 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden r 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown r 


Pay re- 


paid 


paid 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit r 


quit 


Read 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden* 


Ring 


rang or rung 


rung 


Rise a- 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Rot . 


rotted 


rotten r 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn r 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


. sent 


Set be- 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape mis- 


shaped 


shapen b 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven r 


Shear 


shore k 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 



Ridden is nearly obsolete. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



73 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle 


Shine 


shone r 


shone r 


Show* 


showed 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrank or shrunk 


shrunk 


Shred 


sifted 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang or sung 


sung 


Sink 


sank or sunk 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat or sittenf 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slang, slung 


slung 


Slink 


slank, slunk 


slunk 


SUt 


slit R 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


'sown r 


Speak be- 


spoke or spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend nu< 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


spilt R 


Spin 


span, spun 


spun 


Spit be- 


spat, spit 


spit or spitten 


Split 


split R 


split R 


Spread be- 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang or sprung 


sprung 


Stand with- &c. 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting • 


stung 


stung 


Stride be- 


strode or strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 



Sheic, shewed, shewn, — pronounced shotc, &c. 
t Sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete. 

7 



See foot of next page. 



74 



PRACTICAL LESSONS I]N 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Strew* be- 


strewed 


strewed or 


Strow be- 


strowed 


strown, strowed 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen r 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swang or swung 


swung 


Take be- &.c. 


took 


taken 


Teach mis- re~ 


taught 


taught 


Tear un- 


tore or tare 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think be- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve 


thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wax 


• waxed 


waxen r 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound r 


wound 


Work 


wrought r 


wrought, worked 


Wring 


wrung r 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



Obs. The preceding list contains nearly all the simple irregulai 
verbs in the English language. 



QUESTIONS. 
What is an irregular verb ? Are any verbs both regular and 
irregular ? Give an example. Since there is no list of regular 



verbs, how may we know what verbs are regular? 
regular or irregular — and why ? 



Is 



• Strew and shew are now giving way 
nounced. 



strow and show, as they are pro« 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Name the past tense and past participle of the following verbs : Thus 
Take, took, taken. [This is called conjugating the verb.] 

2. Make a short sentence on the slate or blackboard, with each verb, in the 
present tense— in the present-perfect tense— in the past tense— in any tense ; 
thus, We take breakfast early. John took my hat. I have taken his coat. 

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, 
catch, bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, 
get, give, go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, 
know, lose, pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, 
sit, slay, slide, smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write. 

3. In the sentences made as directed No. 2, tell which verbs are transitive, and 
which are intransitive — and why. Point out the subject in each sentence, (that is, 
the person or thing spoken of,) and call that the nominative. Tell which nouns 
or pronouns are in the nominative— and why ;— in the objective— and why. 

4. In each sentence, put the verb in the emphatic form — in the progressive 
form— in the negative form— in the interrogative form— in the negative interroga- 
tive form. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out which verbs are regular, and which irregu- 
lar— and why. 

2. Make short sentences with each verb, as in the preceding Exercise, and do 
with each as there directed, in Nos. 2. 3, 4. 

Love, hope, trust, weep, throw, keep, brush, hunt, 
count, reckon, ask, sleep, eat, drink, spin, save, go, 
teach, wipe, am, draw, bruise, water, know, wash, spoil. 

3. Take the sentences containing transitive verbs, and express the same idea by 
the passive form ; thus, suppose the sentence to be, " James loves praise j" passive 
form, " Praise is loved by James." 

4. Parse the sentences so changed. 



LESSON XXX. 

Defective and Impersonal Verbs. 
Defective verbs are those in which some of the 
parts are wanting. They are irregular, and chiefly 
auxiliary. These are, — 



7t5 v PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Present. Past. Past Part. Present. Past. Past Part. 

Can could Shall should 

May might Will would 

Must '■ Wis wist ; 

Ought Wit or 

Quoth quoth Wot 



wot 



2. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the 
existence of some action or state, but refer it to no 
particular subject. They are preceded by the pro- 
noun it, and are always in the third person singular; 
as, it seems; it becomes, &c. 

To this head may be referred such expressions as, It hails, it 
snows, it rains it thunders, it behooveth, it irketh; and perhaps 
also, methinks, methought , meseems, meseemed, in which, instead 
of it, the first personal pronoun in the objective case, me, is pre- 
fixed to the third persxm singular of the verb. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a defective verb? Are they regular or irregular? 
What are they ? What tenses do the most of them have ? What 
tense has must ? — ought? Is it proper to say "I had ought to 
read?" Why? What is an impersonal verb? By what are 
they preceded ? In what person and number are they ? What 
sort of words are methinks, meseems, &c. ? 



LESSON XXXI. 
Of Jldverbs. 

[Review the preceding Lesson.] 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb, to modify it, or to denote some 
circumstance respecting it; as, Ann speaks distinct- 
ly; she is remarkably diligent, and reads very cor- 
rectly. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

Adverbs have been divided into various classes, according to 
their signification. The chief of these are such as denote, 

1 . Quality or Manner simply; as, well, ill, bravely, pru- 
dently, softly; with innumerable others, formed from adjectives 
by adding ly, or changing le into ly; thus, tame, tamely; sensi- 
ble, sensibly, &c. 

2. Place; as, here, there, where; hither, thither; hence, &c. 

3. Time; as, now, then, when; soon, often, seldom; ever. &c. 

4. Direction; as, upward, downward, backward/ orward, Sec. 

5. Negation; as, nay, no, not, nowise, never. 

6. Affirmation; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes. 

7. Uncertainty; as, perhaps, peradventure, perchance. 

8. Interrogation; as, how, why, when, wherefore. &c. 

9. Comparison ; as, more, most ; less, least ; as, so, thus, &c. 

10. Quantity ; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently. 

11. Order; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. 

12. Conjunctive Adverbs; as, when, where, how, while, &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The chief use of adverbs, is to shorten discourse, by ex- 
pressing in one word what would otherwise require two or more; 
as, here, for " in this place ;" nobly, for { "' in a noble manner," &c. 

2. Some adverbs admit of comparison like adjectives: ras, soon, 
sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, most nobly. A few are 
compared irregularly; as, well, better, best; badly, or ill, worse, 
worst. 

3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which signifies 
at, or on; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart. 

4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually reck- 
oned adverbs; the corresponding as and so are adverbs also; thus. 
It is as high as Heaven. 

5. Circumstances of time, place, manner, Sec, are often ex- 
pressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase; 
as, in short, in fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not 
at all, by norneans, in vain, in order, long ago, by and bye, to 
and fro, &c. which, taken together, may be parsed as adverbs, or 
by supplying the ellipsis; thus, in a short space; in a general 
way, &c. 



78 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Parsing. — An adverb is parsed by stating its class, 
and the word which it modifies ; thus, "Ann speaks 
distinctly." Distinctly is an adverb of manner, and 
modifies "speaks." 

QUESTIONS. 
What is an adverb ? In the sentence, u Ann speaks distinctly." 
which is the adverb? — why? Which is the adverb in the other 
examples ? — and why ? Into how many classes are adverbs com- 
monly divided? Name the first three — the second three — the 
next three — the last. How are adjectives changed into adverbs ? 
What is the chief use of adverbs ? Are any adverbs compared 
like adjectives ? Give an example. Are any compared irregu- 
larly? Give an example. What is an adverbial phrase? Give 
examples. How are such phrases to be parsed? How are ad- 
verbs parsed ? 

EXERCISE I. 

1. In the following list of adverbs, point out the class to which each belongs 

2. Compare those that admit of comparison. 

. 3. Make a number of short sentences, each of which shall, contain one or more 
of the adverbs in the list ; and parse the sentences so made. 

Here, # there, softly, boldly, wisely, seldom, upward, 
once, twice, hitherto, yesterday, how, more, little, sec- 
ondly, enough, perhaps, yes, no, truly, not, already, 
hence, whence, better, sufficiently, wisely, somewhere. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. In the following sentences, tell what words are articles— what words are 
nouns, and why— adjectives, and why— pronouns, and why— verbs, and why — 
whether transitive or intransitive, and why — regular or irregular, and why. 

2. Which words are adverbs ?— and why 1 What words do they modify 1 Parse. 

Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went 
away yesterday. They came to-day. They will per- 
haps buy some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter 
She sung sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. 
Mary rose up hastily. They that have enough may 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



79 



soundly sleep. Cain wickedly slew his brother. I saw 
him long ago. He is a very good man. Sooner or later 
all must die. You read too little. They talk too much. 



LESSON XXXII. 
Of Prepositions. 
A Preposition is a word which shows the relation 
between a noun or pronoun following it, and some 
other word in the sentence ; as, 

" Before honor is humility." " They speak concerning virtue." 
In these sentences, the preposition, " before" points out the 
relation between " honor" and "humility;" and "concerning" 
points out the relation between "virtue" and "speak." 



The principal words of this class are contained in the following- 
LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

About 

Above 

Across 

After 

Against 

Along 

Amid j 

Amidst j" 

Among 

Amongst 

Around 

At 

Athwart 

Before 

Behind 



Below 


From 


Through 


Beneath 


In 


Throughout 


Beside 


Into 


Till 


Besides 


Notwith stand-To 


Between 


ing 


Touching 


Betwixt 


Of 


Toward 


Beyond 


Off 


Towards 


But 


On 


Under 


By 


Over 


Underneath 


Concerning 


Past 


Unto 


Down 


Regarding 


Up 


During 


Respecting 


Upon 


Except 


Round 


With 


Excepting 


Save 


Within 


For 


Since 


Without 



80 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

OBSERVATIONS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Every preposition requires the noun or pronoun after it to 
be in the objective case. When any word in the preceding list 
does not govern an objective case, it becomes an adverb; as, He 
rides about. 

2. But, in such phrases as, cast up, holdout, fall on, the words 
up, out, on, may be considered as a part of the verb, rather 
than as prepositions or adverbs. 

Parsing. — The preposition is parsed by stating 

the words between which it shews the relation; thus, 

•'Before honoris humility." "Before" is a preposition, and 
shews the relation between u honor," and " humility." 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a preposition? In what case is the noun or pronoun 
after a preposition ? When an objective does not follow a prepo- 
sition, what part of speech is it to be considered ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the prepositions in the following exercises. 

2. Point out the noun or pronoun after the preposition, and the word to which It 
is related; thus, "I went from Albany to New- York." The preposition from, 
stands before Albany, and shews its relation to the verb, "went." So also, to 
stands before New- York, and shews its relation to " went." 

I went from London to Bath. The king walked about 
the garden with his son. They dined without me. I 
fell off a ship into the river near the bridge. This box 
of wafers is for you. Charles put it upon the table 
against the inkstand. Turn down the lane through the 
gate. I shall go up the road after him. Run to that 
tree near the house. It stands between the trees. Put 
it on the table at the side of the house. I found the 
knife among the ashes under the grate. Sit by me. 
John is at Utica. They all went except me. 

3. Parse the words in preceding Exercises. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 

LESSON XXXIII. 

Of Interjections. 
d Iotebjec sed inexcl is, to 

express some emotion of the mind; as, Oh! what a 
sight is here ! Well dene! 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 
Adieu! ah! alas! alack! away! aha! begone! 
hark! ho! ha! he! hail! halloo! hum! hush! huz- 
za! hist! hey-dey! lo! O! Oh! O strange! O brave! 
pshaw! see! well-a-day! &c. 

OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS. 

1. The Interjection is throicn in among the other words in a 
sentence, but does not affect their construction. 

2. is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be 
prefixed only to a noun or a pronoun, in a direct address; as, 
M O virtue! How amiable thou art!*'* Oh is used detached from 
the word, with a point of exclamation after it. It implies an 
emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise; as, " Oh! what a sight is 
here!" 

Parsing. — Interjections are parsed by naming them 
as such, stating why. and the emotion expressed. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is an Interjection ? Name some of them. Does the in- 
terjection affect the construction of the other words in a sentence ? 
iiow do and Oh differ in meaning? How, in the manner r 
>.vriting them? How are interjections parsed? 

EXERCISES. 
1. Point out the Interjections in this Exercise. 

Name all the other parts of speech, and parse them. 

Hah ! I am glad to see you. Well-a-day ! I did not 
expect this. Alas ! I am ruined. Indeed ! is that true? 



82 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



What ! is it possible ? Lo ! there he is. Hem ! I do 
not think so. what a benefit education is ! Ah ! you 
are a happy fellow. Hush ! what was that ? Ha, ha, 
ha; how laughable that is! Ho ! come this way. Ah ! 
poor fellow, he is to be pitied. Hurrah ! we have finish- 
ed our lesson. Come ! now for the next. 



LESSON XXXIV. 
Conjunctions. 
A Conjunction is a word which connects words or 
sentences; as, " You and I must study; but he may 
go and play." " Two and two make four." 

Conjunctions are- of two kinds; Copulative and 
Disjunctive. 

A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Copulative — Also, and, because, both, for, if, 
since, that, then, therefore, wherefore. 

2. Disjunctive — Although, as, as well as, but, 
either, except, lest, neither, nor, notwithstanding, 
or, provided, so, than, though, unless, whether, yet, 
still. 

Obs. The copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be 
taken together; as, " You and I (i. e. both of us) must go." The 
disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be taken sepa- 
rately, or one to the exclusion of the rest ; as, " You or I (i. e. the 
one or the other, but not both) must go." 

Parsing. — Conjunctions are parsed by stating to 
what class they belong, and the words or sentences 
which they join together; thus, "You and I must 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



83 



study." And is a conjunction, copulative, and con- 
nects You and I. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a conjunction? How many kinds of conjunctions are 
there ? What are the copulative ? — the disjunctive ? How do 
these two classes differ ? How are conjunctions parsed ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the conjunctions in the following Exercise, the class to which they 
belong, and words which they connect. 

2. Parse ail the words in order. 

Henry and Charles read their lessons. I or he will 
be there. I will be with you unless you. call. I slept 
well though the dog barked. Read that you may learn. 
John says that he will do it. As he writes, so do I read ; 
for I am fond of reading. Neither the boys nor the 
girls are asleep. I would call if I could, but I cannot. 
Take care lest you fall. Two and two make four. He 
is better than I thought he was, though he behaved ill. 
Since that has happened I must go. Do to others as 
you would that they should do to you. 



LESSON XXXV. 
How to distinguish the Parts of Speech. 

1. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and in- 
terjections, are so few in number that they may be easily com- 
mitted to memory. 

2. The other four, namely, the aoun, adjective, verb, and ad- 
verb, wil be best distinguished by comparing their meaning and 
use with the definitions of these parts of speech in their place; 
thus, 

1st. Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a Noun 
because " A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing." 



84 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

2d. A word that qualifies a noun by describing, limiting, or distin- 
guishing it, is an adjective; because, "An adjective is a word 
used to qualify a substantive." 

3d. A word that expresses what a person or thing does, or is, or 
what is done to a person or thing, is a verb ; because, " a verb is 
a word used to express the act, being, or state of its subject." 

4 th. A word that modifies another by expressing a circumstance 
of time, place, manner, &c. is an Adverb; because "An ad- 
verb &c." [See definition, Lesson XXXI.] 
3. The following technical method, though neither very accu- 
rate nor certain, may assist the young pupil in distinguishing 

these four parts of speech; but the preceding should always be 

preferred. 

1st. A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase " 1 
speak of," is a Noun; as, A man; I speak of money. 

2d. A word that makes sense before the word thing, is common- 
ly an Adjective; as, A good thing; an old thing. 

3d. A Verb makes sense with I, thou, he, or to before it; as, I 
write; he writes; to teach. 

4th. The answer to the question, How ? When ? Where? is gene- 
rally an Adverb; as, How do you do ? Very well. When did 
you arrive? Yesterday. Where is your" book ? It is here. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1 . Many words are sometimes to be regarded as one part of 
speech, and sometimes as another, according to their meaning 
and use in the place where they are used; thus, 

/ A Demonstrative Pronoun; as " Give me that book." 
That, } Relative Pronoun; as, " It is the same that I bought " 

v Conjunction; as, u I am glad that, you are come." 

r Adverb; as, " It is much better to give than to receive." 
Much, < Adjective; as, " In much wisdom is much grief." 

' Noun; as, u Where much is given, much is required." 

r Conjunction; as, "Since we must part." 
Since, < Preposition; " Since that time." 

( Adverb; as, " Your friend has gone long si?ice." 

f Conjunction; as, "Poor but honest." 
But, < Preposition-, as, " All out one." 

' Adverb- as, " He has but just enough." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

2. When the same word is sometimes a preposition and some- 
times a conjunction, let it be remembered that the preposition is 
followed by an objective case; the conjunction is not. 

QUESTIONS. 

How may we most readily distinguish articles, pronouns, prepo- 
sitions, conjunctions, and interjections? How do you distinguish 
the noun from other parts of speech? — the adjective ?— the verb? 
— the adverb? 



LESSON XXXVI. 

Parsing. 
Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements, or parts of speech. Words are parsed two 
ways; Etymologically, and Syntactically. 

1. In etymological parsing, the pupil is required to state the 
part of speech to which a word belongs, and to describe it by its 
accidents. 

2. In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing 
the word etymologically, to state its relation to other words in 
the sentence, and the rules by which these relations are governed. 

N. B. Before proceeding to Syntax, the pupil should be expert 
Ln etymological parsing. This he can hardly fail to be, if he has 
attended, in the manner directed, to the exercises already given. 
The reading lessons in the spelling book, or sentences from any 
plain writer, may now be analyzed and parsed as already direct- 
ed. To assist farther in this, observe the following 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
In order to parse a sentence, it is necessary to un- 
derstand it. The sentence being understood, in pars- 
ing it, let the following general principles be remem- 
bered, viz. 

1. Every Article, Adjective, Adjective pronoun, 
or Participle, belongs to some noun or pronoun, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

8 



86 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

2. The subject of a verb, i. e. the person or thing 
spoken of, is usually in the nominative, and is said 
to be the " nominative to the verb/' 

3. Every noun or pronoun, in the nominative case, 
when spoken of, is the subject of a verb, expressed 
or understood, i. e., it is that of which the verb af- 
firms. To this there are a few exceptions. 

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, or sub- 
junctive mood, has a nominative or subject express- 
ed or understood, i. e., it has something of which it 
affirms. 

5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and 
every preposition, governs a noun or pronoun in the 
objective case ; and every objective case is governed 
by a transitive verb in the active voice, or by a pre- 
position. 

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed 
by a verb or adjective ; sometimes by a noun; and 
sometimes it stands after the conjunction, than or as. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is parsing ? How many kinds of parsing are there ? 
What is done in etymological parsing ? — in syntactical parsing ? 
What is necessary before parsing a sentence? To what does 
every article, adjective, &c. belong? In what case is the subject 
of a verb ? When a noun or pronoun in the nominative case is 
spoken of, what must it have? What must every verb in the in- 
dicative, potential, or subjunctive mood, have? What case does 
every transitive verb in the active voice, and every preposition, 
have after it? By what is the objective case always governed? 
When a verb is in the infinitive mood, by what is it governed? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 

For the answer to the following questions, go back 
to the pages indicated. 

How is a noun parsed ? p. 19. — an article ? p. 20. — an adjec- 
tive? p. 25.— a pronoun? pp. 28, 31, 34.— a verb? p. 55.— an ad- 
verb? p. 78. — a preposition? p\ 80. — a conjunction? p. 81. — an 
interjection? p. 83. Parse all these as directed in the places re- 
ferred to, and as described in the next Lesson. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

Model of Etymological Parsing. 
" Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be 
yet wiser." 

" Give" is a verb, transitive, irregular,- give, gave, given; in the 
imperative, active, second person, singular. Its subject 
is thou understood, and its object, instruction. 

" Instruction" is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular; the 
object of give* 
" To" is a preposition ; it points out the relation between its ob- 
ject man, and give. 

" A" is an article, indefinite, belongs to man. 

"Wise" is an adjective; compared, wise, wiser, wisest: and ex- 
presses a quality of .man. 

f< Man" is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular; pi. men. 

•'• And" is a conjunction, and connects the clauses. 

" He" is a third personal pronoun, masculine, in the nominative 

singular ; the subject of will be, and stands for man. 
'Will be" is a verb, intransitive, irregular; am, was, been; in 
the future, indicative, active, third person, singular, and 
affirms hf. its subject, he. 

" Yet" is an adverb, modifying wiser. 

" Wiser" is an adjective, comparative degree; wise, wiser, 
wisest; and belongs to man, or is predicated of he. 

' The person and class of the noun are omitted for reasons stated p.,10. 



88 ' PRACTICAL LESSONS LN 

As a further exercise, the pupil may be required 
to give a reason for every thing affirmed in the pre- 
ceding model; thus, 

Why do you say that give is a verb? Why transitive? Why 
irregular? Why the imperative ? Why the second person? Why 
singular? 

Why do you say that instruction is a noun ? Why neuter ? 
Why singular? Why the objective? &c. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

Exercises in Parsing. 
After the same manner as in the preceding Lesson, 
parse and practice on the following exercises. 

MAXIMS FOR YOUNG AND OLD. 

I. Early Piety. — Remember now thy Creator in the 
days of thy youth, while the evil days come not, nor 
the years draw nigh, when thou shalt say, I have no 
pleasure in them. 

Children, obey your parents: honor thy father and 
mother, is the first commandment with promise. 

A wise son heareth a father's instruction, but ascorn- 
er heareth not rebuke. The eye that mocketh at his 
father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of 
the valley shall pluck out, and the young eagles shall 
eat it. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish 
son is the heaviness of his mother. Whoso loveth in- 
struction loveth knowledge, but he that hateth reproof 
is brutish. 

II. Education. — Train up a child in the way he 
should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

Quintilian recommends to all parents the timely edu- 
cation of their children ; advising to train them up in 
learning, good manners, and virtuous exercises ; since 
we commonly retain those things in age which we en- 
tertained in youth. 

5 Tis education forms the common mind ; 
Just as the twig is bent, the tree's inclined. 

An industrious and virtuous education of children is 
a better inheritance for them than a great estate. 

III. Prosperity and Adversity. — If I must make 
choice either of continual prosperity or adversity, I 
would choose the latter ; for in adversity no good man 
can want comfort, whereas, in prosperity, most men want 
discretion. Adversity overcome, is the greatest glory; 
and willingly undergone, the greatest virtue : sufferings 
are but the trials of gallant spirits. 

IV. Anger. — The .continuance of anger is hatred; 
the continuance of hatred becomes malice ; that anger 
is not warrantable which has suffered the sun to go down 
upon it. Let all men avoid rash speaking. One un- 
quiet, perverse disposition, distempers the peace and 
unity of a whole family, or society, as one jarring in- 
strument will spoil a whole concert. 

V. Riches. — Riches beget pride ; pride, impatience ; 
impatience, revenge ; revenge, war ; war, poverty ; pov- 
verty, humility ; humility, patience; patience, peace ; 
and peace, riches. 

The shortest way to be rich, is not by enlarging our 
estates, but, by contracting our desires. A great fortune 
in the hands of a fool, is a great misfortune. The more 
riches a fool has, the greater fool lie is. 
8* 



90 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PERSEVERANCE. 

It is astonishing to see how much can. be done by 
perseverance. Jessie is not so smart as either of her 
sisters, yet it strikes me, she will grow up the most sens- 
ible woman of the three ; and what do you think is the 
reason ? Why, because she never says she cannot do 
a thing, but tries, over and over again, till she does it. 
She is not quick, nor is her memory very good, there- 
fore it is a great trouble to her to learn a lesson by heart; 
but yet she is generally better prepared than the others. 
Though Louisa can learn to repeat a page of history in 
ten minutes, and Clara went twice through the gram- 
mar before Jessie got to the twentieth page, yet these 
quick folks often forget as fast as they learn, and, like 
the hare in the fable, that ran a race with the tortoise, 
they are left behind at last. — "Useful Stories. 

WASHINGTON AND HIS MOTHER. 
Young George was about to go to sea as a midship- 
man ; every thing was arranged, the vessel lay opposite 
his father's house, the little boat had come on shore to 
take him off, and his whole heart was bent on going. 
After his trunk had been carried down to the boat, he 
went to bid his mother farewell, and saw the tears burst- 
ing from her eyes. However, he said nothing to her ; 
but he saw that his mother would be distressed if he 
went, and perhaps never be happy again. He just turn- 
ed round to the servant and said, " Go and tell them to 
fetch my trunk back. I will not go away to break my 
mother's heart." His mother was struck with his de- 
cision, and she said to him, " George, God has promised 
to bless the children that honor their parents, and I 
believe he will bless von." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 

PAET THIRD.— SYNTAX. 
LESSON XXXIX. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of 
the proper arrangement, and connexion of words 
in a sentence. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete 
sense ; as, " Man is mortal." 

A phease is two or more words rightly put together, but not 
making complete sense ; as, " In truth*' — " To say the least." 

Sentences are of four kinds : Declaratory, Interrogatory, Impera- 
tive, and Exclamatory. 

All sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; as, " Life is 
short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences 
connected together ; as, <: Life, which is short, should be well im- 
proved." 



LESSON XL. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Simple Sentences. 

A simple sentence or proposition consists of two 
parts — the subject and the predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the 
subject. 



92 PRACTICAL LE3S0NS IN 

The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun — an infinitive mood, 
or part of a sentence. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts — the attribute 
affirmed of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is 
made. Thus, in the sentence, "God is love" — God is the subject, 
and is love is the predicate, in which, love is the attribute, and is, the 
copula. 

The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word ; as, 
" The fire 6wms,"=" The fire is burning? Hence — 

The predicate may be a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a prepo- 
sition with its case, an adverb, an infinitive, or 'part of a ^sentence, 
connected always with the subject by a copulative verb as a copula 
(An. & Pr. Gr. 601) : or, it may be a verb, which includes in itself 
both attribute and copula, as above. 

EXEKCISES. 

In the following, which are sentences? and which are phrases ? and why? 
In the sentences, mention the subject — the predicate, and why ? 

Snow is white. Ice is cold. Time flies. Life is short. 
In truth. God is good. Home is sweet. To be sure. 
Truth will prevail. Birds fly. The fields are green. 



LESSON XLI. 
THE SUBJECT. 

I. The subject of a proposition is either gram- 
matical, or logical. 

The grammatical subject is the person or thing apoken of, un- 
limited by other words. 

The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with 
all the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined. Thus : — 
In the sentence, " Every man at his best state is vanity" — the gram- 
matical subject is " man," the logical, " Every man at his best state." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, which is the grammatical, and which the logical 
subject ? 
Point out the subject and the predicate in each. 

The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. All 
men have not faith. The memory of the just is blessed. 
Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. The blessing 
of the Lord maketh rich. Wise men lay up knowledge. 
A man's pride shall bring him low. 

II. The subject of a proposition is either simple 
or compound. 

A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either un- 
limited, or modified as in the preceding exercises. It may be a 
noun or pronoun, an infinitive mood, a participial noun, or a clause 
of a sentence. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to 
which belongs but one predicate ; as, " You and /are friends." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following, point out the subjects and the predicates. State whether sim- 
ple or compound — limited or unlimited. Distinguish the grammatical and 
logical. 

Time and tide wait for no man. The rich and the 
poor meet together. Two and three are five. Wealth 
makes many friends. James and John are cousins. 



LESSON XLII. 

Modifications of the Subject. 

A grammatical subject may be modified, limited, 
or described in various ways ; as, 

1. By a noun in apposition ; as, " Milton, the poet, -was blind." 

2. By a noun in the possessive case ; as, " Aaron's rod budded." 



94 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3. By an adjunct; as, "The works of Nature are beautiful." 

4. By an adjective word (i. e., an article, adjective, adjective pro- 

noun, or participle) ; as, " A good name is better than 
riches." 

5. By a relative pronoun and its clause ; as, " He who does no 

good, does harm." 

6. By an infinitive mood ; as, " A desire to learn is praiseworthy." 

7. By a clause of a sentence ; as, " The fact that he was a scholar 

was manifest." 

8. Each grammatical subject may have several modifications. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, point out the grammatical subject — the logical — 
and state how the grammatical subject is modified. 

A wise man foreseeth evil. Wisdom's ways are 
pleasantness. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing. 
He that walketh uprightly, walketh surely. Nature 
does nothing in vain. Socrates, the philosopher, died 
by poison. A desire to excel will stimulate to exertion. 



LESSON XLIII. 
Modification of the Modifying Words. 

Modifying or limiting words may themselves be 
modified. 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in 'all the 

ways in which a noun, being a grammatical subject, is 
modified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct ; as, " Blessed are the pure in heart." 

2. By an adverb ; as, " A truly good man hates evil." 

3. By an infinitive ; as, " Be swift to hear, slow to speak? 
8. Again an adverb may be modified : — 

1. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to Nature? 

2. By another adverb; as, "Yours very sincerely." 



ENGLISH GRAV. 95 

EXEKCK 

In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying nonns modi- 
fied ? — the adjectives 1 — ;he adverbs ? 

The rich man's wealth is his strong city. The very 
remedy for certain eyila is exercise. Truly great 
men are far above worldly pride. Your very kind let- 
ter has been received. 



LESSON XLIV. 

THE PREDICATE. 

I. The predicate, like the subject, is either gram- 
matical or logical. 

The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, 
not modified by other words. 

The attribute, -which together with the copula forms the predicate, 
may be expressed by a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a participle, 
a preposition with its case, and sometimes an adverb ; as, James is 
a scholar. Jair. ~. James is in 

health. John is n 

The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word, as the 
nre burns=is burning. 

The logical predicate is the grammatical, together with all the 
words and phrase3 that modify it : — Thus. Xero was cruel to his 
subjects — Grammatical predicate, " was cruel n — Logical, " was cruel 
to his subje 

"When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms con- 
nected with it, the grammatical and the logical predicate are the 
same ; as, - Life is short." " Time flies." 

EXERCIS] 

In the following sentences, name the subject and tbe predicate. In each, tell 
wfcst is tbe grammatical, and what is the logical predicate. 

The wind blows. The fire burns. Man is mortal. 
i iom is the principal thing. He that tilleth his land 



96 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

shall be satisfied with bread. The way of a fool is right 
in his own eyes. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple 
or compound. 

A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute ; as, 
" Truth is great" 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates, 
affirmed of one subject ; as, " Truth is great and will prevail." 

EXEECISES. 

In each of the following sentences, name the subject and the predicate. State 
whether the predicate is siviple or compound. Distinguish the grammatical and 
logical. 

The fields are green. Csesar came, saw, and con- 
quered. John reads and writes well. The cities of the 
enemy were plundered and burned to the ground. The 
night was dark and rainy. A scorner seeketh wisdom 
and flndeth it not. Charity suffereth long, and is kind. 



LESSON XLV. 
Modifications of the Predicate. 

A grammatical predicate may be modified or 
limited in various ways. 

When the attribute in the grammatical predicate 
is a noun, it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute ; as, 

"He is John the Baptist." "He is my friend." "He is 
my father's friend." 

2. By an adjective or participle limiting the attribute ; as, " Solo- 

mon was a wise king." 

When the grammatical predicate is an attributive 
verb, it is modified — 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 97 

1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of 

the verb ; as, " We love him" " John reads Homer" 

2. By an adverb ; as, "John reads well." 

3. By an adjunct ; as, " They live in London" 

4. By an infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play." 

5. By a dependent clause ; as, " Plato taught that the soul is im- 

ynortal." 

An infinitive or participle may be modified in all respects as the 
verb in the predicate. 

A modifying clause, if a dependent proposition, may be modified 
in both its subject and predicate as other propositions. 

All other modifying words may themselves be modified as similar 
words are, when modifying the subject. 

Several modifications are sometimes connected with the same 
predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate — distinguish the 
grammatical and the logical predicate — show in what way the grammatical sub- 
ject is modified in the logical. 

His father and mother are dead : they cued a year 
ago. Hannibal crossed the Alps. Livy and Tacitus 
were Roman historians. His intention was to destroy 
the fleet. Time flies rapidly. Sincerity and truth are 
the basis of every virtue. I wish that he would come 
soon. 



LESSON XLVI. 
Compound Sentences. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more 
simple sentences, or propositions, connected together; 
as, " If time is money, wasting it must be prodi- 
gality." 

The propositions which make up a compound 
sentence are called members, or clauses. 
9 



98 PRACTICAL LESSONS JN 

Independent and Dependent Clauses. 

The clauses of a compound sentence are either Independent, or 
dependent — sometimes called co-ordinate and subordinate. 

An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by 
itself. 

A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only "in 
connexion with another clause; thus, "We left when the sun set:" 
" We.left," is an independent clause ; " when the sun -set," is a de- 
pendent one. The dependent clause often stands first. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, state which are simple, and which are compound. 
In the compound, point out the members or clauses — analyze them, and state 
which are independent, and which dependent : — 

The carriage was brought to the door, and we set out 
on our journey. The sun had set before we got home. 
When we arrived, they greeted us with a cordial wel- 
come. Though he slay me, I will trust in him. The 
subjunctive^mood is used when both doubt and futurity- 
are implied. Train up a child in the way he should go, 
and when he is old he will not depart from it. If thine 
enemy hunger, feed him. 



LESSON XLVII. 

Connexion of Clauses. 

Clauses of the same kind, whether independent 
or dependent, are connected by such conjunctions 
as and, or, nor, but, yet, &c. ; as, " The harvest is 
past, the summer is ended, and we are not saved." 

In these, the connective is sometimes omitted. 

The members of a compound sentence containing 
one or more dependent clauses, are usually con- 
nected by relatives, conjunctions, or adverbs : thus, 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 

Relative. — " That which can not be cured, must be endured." 
Conjunction. — " The miser lives poor, that he may die rich." 
Adverb. — " "We will go when the cars arrive;' 

See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 645, 646. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following compound sentences, stale which contain only independent 
clauses, and which dependent ones. Point out the dependent clauses, and also 
on what leading clauses they depend. Name the connecting words. 

Fear God and keep his commandments. Hear in- 
struction and be wise, and refuse it not. He that is 
surety for a stranger, shall smart for it. The wicked 
flee when no man pursueth. When I was a child, I 
spake as a child. Where thou goest, I will go. If thou 
be wise, thou shalt be wise for thyself. 

The connecting word is sometimes omitted. In the following sentences, 
point out the dependent clause, and state what connective is omitted. 

The injuries we do, and those we suffer, are seldom 
weighed in the same balance. See thou do it not. Your 
father thinks you ought to study more. 



LESSON XLVIII. 

Abridged Propositions. 

A compound sentence may sometimes be con- 
verted into a simple one, by abridging its dependent 
clause. 

A dependent clause is frequently abridged by omitting the con- 
necting word, and changing the verb of the predicate into a parti- 
ciple or infinitive : Thus — 

" When the boys have finished their lesson?, they will play ;" 
abridged, " The boys, having finished their lessons, will play." " I 
know that he is faithful ;" abridged, " I know him to be faithful." 



100 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



EXERCISES. 



1. Abridge the following compound sentences into simple ones : 

"When our work is finished, we will play. When I 
had visited Europe, I returned to America. It is said, 
that " the love of money is the root of all evil :" daily 
observation shows that it is so. 

2. Extend the following simple sentences into compound ones : 

Connect the following sentences. Time past can 
never be recalled. The road leading to the castle was 
blocked up. I know it to be genuine. You know him 
to be your friend. We hold these principles to be self- 
evident. 



LESSON XLIX. 
Directions for Analysis. 

State whether the sentence is simple, or compound. 

If simple, name the logical subject, and the logical predicate. 

Name the grammatical subject. 

Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in the 
logical. 

Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is 
modified. 

Name the grammatical predicate. 

Show by what words or phrases, if any, it is modified in the 
logical. 

Show by what modifying words or phrases, if any, each modify- 
ing word is modified. 

If compound, mention the members, or clauses. 

State whether they are independent, or dependent. 

Show how the members are connected. 

Analyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing its sub- 
ject., predicate, &c, as above. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 

Models of Analysis. 

1. "God is good." 

This is a simple sentence, because it contains a subject and a 

predicate. 
God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality 

is affirmed. 
Is good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its 

subject. 7s is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. 
In this sentence, the grammatical subject and predicate are the 

same as the logical, because they are not modified by other 

words. 
Or, more briefly, thus : — 
The logical subject is God. 
The logical predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula 

and good the attribute. 
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

2. " The fear of the Lord -is the beginning of 
wisdom." 

This is a simple sentence. 

The logical subject is The fear of the Lord. 

The logical predicate is is the beginning of icisdom. 

The grammatical subject a. fear. It is limited by the adjunct, 
of the Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the. 

The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which, is is the verb 
or copula, and beginning the attribute. It is limited by the 
adjunct, of wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 
+ 
EXERCISES. 

Thus analyze the following sentences : — 

Man is mortal. All men are mortal. The hand of 
the diligent maketlf rich. Time is money. The love 
of money is the root of all evil. A friend in need, is a 
friend indeed. He that trusteth in his riches, shall fall. 
When pride cometh. then cometh shame. 
9* 



102 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

LESSON L. 
CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 
Words are arranged in sentences, according to 
certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax. 

661. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. In every sentence, there must be a verb and its nominative (or 
subject), expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must 
have a substantive, expressed or understood. 

3. Every nominative', or subject, has its own verb, expressed or 
understood. 

4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive or 
participles) has its own nominative, expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by a noun or substantive 
denoting the object 



6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the 
active voice, or by a preposition ; or denotes circumstances of time, 
value, weight or measure. 

7. The infinitive is governed by a verb, a noun, or an adjective. 
The exceptions to these general principles will appear in the Rules of Syntax. 

PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

The Rules of Syntax may all be referred to three 
heads ; viz., Concord or agreement, Government, and 
Position. 

Concord is the agr^ment which one word has 
with another in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is the power which one word has 
in determining the mood, tense, or case of another 
word. The w r ord governed by another word is 
called its regimen. 

Position means the place which a word occupies 
in relation to other words in a sentence. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 

In the English language, which has but few inflections, the mean- 
ing of a sentence often depends much on the position of the words 
of which it consists. 



LESSON LI. 

Rule I. — Substantives denoting the same person 
or thing, agree in case; as, Cicero, the orator. 
Words thus used are said to be in apposition. 

EXPLANATION. — A noun is placed in apposition after another noun, to ex- 
press some attribute, description, or appellation, belonging to it. Both, nouns 
must be in the same member of the sentence, that is, in the subject, or the predi- 
cate. This Rule applies to all words used substantively, and it is only when 
the word in apposition is a pronoun, that there is any danger of error, because 
in pronouns only, the nominative and objective are different in form. The 
word in apposition is sometimes connected with the preceding by the words 
as, beivg, and the like. 

EXEKCISES.* 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the words in apposition. See if they 
are in the same case. If they i\re, the sentence is right ; if not, it is wrong and 
must be corrected. In the following, some sentences are right, others wrong. 

First in the hearts of his countrymen is Washington, 
the hero, the statesman, and the patriot! La Fayette, 
the friend of Washington, is no more. Your brother 
has returned, him who went abroad. I bought this paper 
from a bookseller, he who lives opposite ; will you 
please to give it to that boy, he that stands by the door. 
Is your sister well, her that was lately sick % 

2. In this manner, write correct sentences containing nouns, or a nouu and 
its pronoun, in apposition. 

* ft. R. Throughout the Exercises in Syntax— first, correct the errors ; second- 
ly, analyze orally the sentences so corrected ; thirdly, parse any word etymolo- 
gically; and lastly, parse syntactically the word or words to which the rule 
refers. See Lesson LXXV. 



104 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

LESSON LII. 

Rule II. — 1. An adjective or participle qualifies 
the substantive to which it belongs ; as, " A good 
man." 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the 
singular — adjectives denoting more than one, qual- 
ify nouns in the plural ; as, " This man." — " These 
men." — " Six feet." 

EXPL A NATION.— This Rule applies to all adjective words, namely, adjec- 
tives, adjective pronouns, and participles. These being indeclinable in English, 
there is danger of error only in the use of such as imply number. 

Obs. 1. Adjectives denoting one, are this, that, one, each, every, 
either, neither ; and the ordinal numerals, first, second, third; &c. 

Obs. 2. Adjectives denoting more than one, are these, those, many, 
several ; and the cardinal numerals, two, three, four, &c. 

Obs. 3. Some adjectives implying number, can be joined with 
either singular or plural nouns, according to the sense ; as, some, all, 
no, &c. ; thus, Some man, Some men. 

Obs. 4. Exception. When the noun following the numeral is used 
in an adjective sense, (Lesson X., Obs. 1,) it has not the plural ter- 
mination ; thus, we say, A four inch plank ; a three foot wall ; a 
four horse team ; . a ten acre field, &c. 

Obs. 5. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs ; thus, miserable 
poor ; sings elegant, should be, miserably poor ; sings elegantly. 

Obs. 6. When two or more objects are contrasted, this refers to 
the last mentioned, and that, to the first; as, " Virtue and vice are 
opposite qualities ; that enobles the mind, this debases it." 

Obs. 1. Comparison. When two objects are compared, the com- 
parative degree is commonly used ; when more than two, the super- 
lative ; as, " He is taller than his father." " John is the tallest 
amongst us." 

Obs. 8. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, 
" James is more taller than John" — omit more. " He is the most 
wisest of the three" — omit most. For varieties and exceptions, see 
An. & Pr. Gr. 671-706. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105 



EXERCISES. 



1. la the following Exercise, point out the adjectives, and the substantives 
which they qualify. Tell which denote one, and which more than one, and 
make the substantives singular or plural as the adjectives require. 

A well six fathom deep. A pole ten foot long. A 
field twenty rod wide. I have not seen him this ten 
days. Those sort of people are common. These kind 
of things are useless. You will find the remark in the 
second or third pages. Each have their own place, and 
they know it. The second and' third page were torn, 

3. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adjective of num- 
ber, (See Obs. 1, 2, 3,)-and a substantive in the number required by the adjec- 
tive. Thus, Every man had a pole six feet long. 



LESSON LIII. 

Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put before 
common nouns in the singular number, when used 
indefinitely; as, "A man" — "An apple ;" that is, 
"any man" — "any apple." 

2. The article the is put before common nouns, 
either singular or plural, when used definitely; as, 
" The sun rises" — ' ; The city of New York." 

EXPLANATION.— It is impossible to give a precise Rule for the use of the 
article in every case. The best general Rule is, to observe what the sense re- 
quires. The following usages may be noticed. For others, see An. & Pr. 
Gr. 707-728. 

Obs. 1. The article is omitted before a noun that is unlimited 
that stands for a whole species ; as, Man is mortal ; and before 
names of minerals, metals, art3, &c. Some nouns denoting the 
species, have the article always prefixed ; as, The dog is a more 
grateful animal than the cat. The lion is a noble animal. Others 
never have it ; thus, Lead is softer than iron. "Wood is lighter than 
"stone. 



106 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Obs. 2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have 
no article when they both refer to one person or thing ; as, He is a 
better reader than writer. 

Obs. 3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to the 
same subject, the article should be placed before the first, and 
omitted before the rest ; but when they belong to different subjects, 
the article is prefixed to each ; thus, " A red and white rose," indi- 
cates one rose, partly red and partly white. " A red and a- white 
rose," means two roses, one red and one white. " Johnson, the book- 
eeller and stationer," denotes one person. " Johnson, the bookseller, 
and the stationer," denotes two. 

EXERCISES. 

J. The following sentences are wrong only in the use of the article. Shew 
why they are wrong, and correct them. 

A great talents without a virtue are dangerous. A 
man is mortal. A time flies. The money is scarce. 
John is a better farmer than a scholar. The black and 
the white spaniel runs fastest. The black and. white 
spaniel run together. The time and the tide wait for 
no man. A red and a white rose grows on this bush. 
The black and white man came together. Smith, the 
tanner and currier, entered into partnership. Smith, the 
tanner and the currier, is a man of a great industry. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the article a, or an, or 
the : — others, which shall contain nouns without an article. 



LESSON LIV. 

Rule IV. — Pronouns agree with the words for 
which they stand in gender, number, and person ; as, 
All that a man hath, will he give for his life. 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule applies only to the personal and possessive 
pronouns. These stand instead of nouns of all genders, numbers, and per- 
sons ; and this Rule means, that when any of thess pronouns is used, it must, 
be of the same gender, number, and person, with the noun for which it stands. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 

* SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words taken 
together, and of different persons, it becomes plural, and prefers the 
frst persoti to the second, and the second to the third ; as, " John 
and you and /will do our duty." 

Rule 2. — When a pronoun refers to two or more words in the 
si?igular, taken separately ; or to one of them exclusively, it must 
be singular ; as, " A clock or a watch moves merely as it is moved." 

Rule 3. — But if either of the words referred to is plural, the 
pronoun must be plural also ; as, " Neither he nor they trouble 
themselves." 

Obs. 1. — A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, 
expressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular; 
but when the pronoun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun 
should be plural ; as, " The army proceeded on its march." — " The 
court were divided in their opinions." 

Obs. 2. — The word containing the answer to a question, must be 
in the same case as the word that asks it ; as, " Who said that V 
Ans. " I (said it)." " Whose books are these ?" Ans. " John's." 
For other Notes and Observations, see An. <fe Pr. Gr. 731-741. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the personal and possessive pronoun?, 
and the nouns for which they stand. Change the pronoun, if necessary, for 
one of the same gender, number, and person, with its noun. 

Give to every man their due. Answer not a fool 
according to her folly. Take handfuls of ashes and 
sprinkle it towards heaven. Rebecca took raiment and 
put them upon Jacob. Thou and he shared it between 
them. Who is there? Me. Who did that] Him. 
Whom did you meet ? He. Whose pen is that 1 Her 
or mine's. Virtue forces her way through obscurity, 
and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. 

2. Write sentences each of which shall contain one of the following nouns, 
and a pronoun standing instead of it: John, Jllary, uncle, father, mother, book, 
house, girl, boy, pen, &c. ; thus, " There is John ; tell him to come in ; he must 
be tired." 



108 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

LESSON LV. • 

Rule V. — The relative agrees with its antecedent 
in number and person ; as, a Thou who speakest." — 
" The book which was lost." 

EXPLANATION.— The relative stands instead of the noun or pronoun called 
its antecedent, and also connects the idea expressed in its clause with the ante- 
cedent, as a farther limitation or description of it. Consequently, the relative 
is always regarded as of the same person and namber as its antecedent; and, 
if the nominative to a verb, the verb Will be of the same number and person 
also. For remarks respecting the antecedent and the use of who and which, 
see Lesson XIII. 

Rule 1. — Who is applied to persons, or things personified; as 
" The man who" — " The fox who had never seen a lion." 

Rule 2. — Which is applied to things, and inferior animals ; as, 
" The house which ;" " The dog which? See Lesson XIII, 4. 

Rule 3. — That, as a relative, is used instead of who or which — 

1. After the superlative degree, the words same, all, and some- 

times no, some, and any ; and generally in restrictive clauses ; 
as, " It is the best that can be got." 

2. When the antecedent .includes both persons and things ; as, 

" The man and the horse that we saw yesterday." 

3. After the interrogative who, and sometimes after the personal 

pronouns ; as, " Who that knows him will believe it." " I 
that speak in righteousness." 

4. Generally when the propriety of who, or which, is doubtful ; 

as, " The child that was placed in the midst." 
For other remarks, see An. & Pr. Gr. 743-759. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the relative, and the noun or pronoun to which it refers. Tell 
the use of the relative and its clause in each sentence. Alter the relative, if 
necessary, as required by its antecedent, according to Sue-Rule 1. If the rela- 
tive is in the nominative, put its verb in the same number and person as the 
relative or the antecedent. Give a reason for each change. 

The friend which I love. The vice which I hate. 
There is the dog who followed us. They which seek 
wisdom, find it. All which beauty, all which wealth 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



109 



e'er gave. M I who speak unto you, am he." It is the 
best "situation which can be got. The man and the 
horse whom we saw. 

2. Write a few short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the fol- 
lowing nouns or pronouns limited by a relative and its clause ; viz. Jfin, house, 
dog, tree, field, hat, boot, chair ; I, thou, he, ice, you, they ; thus. -'There, is the 
man tcho makes baskets." Parse the sentences, and tell the number and person 
of the relative, and why. 



LESSON LVI. 

Rule VI. — The subject of a finite verb is put in 
the nominative; as, U I am." — ''Thou art." — "He 
— " They are." — " Time flies." 

Explanation. — A finite verb is a verb limited by person and number, i. e., 
a verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative mood. 

The subject of a finite verb may be a noun, a pronoun, an infini- 
tive mood, a participle used as a noun, or a clause of a sentence. 
All these, when the subject of a verb, may be regarded as the nomi- 
native. See further An. & Pr. Gr. 751-767. 

EXERCISES. 

In each sentence, point oat the verb and its subject. If the subject is not in 
the right case, change it. 

Him and me are of the same age. Suppose you and 
me go. Them are excellent. It is probable that her 
and me will return. Robert is taller than me. but I am 
as strong as him. 



LESSON LVII. 

Rule A II. — A substantive whose case depends on 
no other icord, is put in the nominative. 



10 



110 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

SPECIAL KULES. 

Rule 1. — A substantive with a participle, ivhose case depends on 
no other word, is put in the nominative absolute; as, "He being 
gone, only two remain." 

Rule 2. — A person or thing addressed, without a verb or govern- 
ing word, is put in the nominative independent ; as, " I remain, dear 
sir, yours truly." — " Plato, thou reasonest well." 

Rule 3. — A substantive uncomtected in mere exclamation, is put 
in the nominative independent; as, " the times I — O the man- 
ners r 

Rule 4.-*--4 substantive used bij pleonasm, before an affirmation, 
is put in the nominative independent ; as, " Your fathers, where are 
they ?" 

Under these Rules, a mistake can be made only in the case of 
pronouns. 

EXERCISES. 

Foint out the word in the case absolute or independent: if wrong, put it in 
the right case, and state why it should be in the nominative. 

Me being absent, the" business was neglected. Thee 

being present, he would not tell what he knew. Oh ! 

happy us, surrounded with so many blessings. Thee 
too ! Brutus, my son! cried 'Caesar overcome. 



LESSON LVIII. 

Rule VIII. — A verb agrees with its nominative in 
number and person ; as, "I read" u Thou readest," . 
" He reads," &c. 

Explanation.— This Rule means, that a verb m-ast always be in the same 
number and person with its subject or nominative. This Rule and the Special 
Rules under it apply, also, when the subject is an infinitive mood, or clause of 
a sentence. See under Rule VT. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, tell which words are verbs— which the nomi- 
natives—whether ihe verb and its nominative agree or not— and if not, make 
them agree by putting the verb in the person and number of its nominative. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ill 

You was there. They was absent. Your brothers 
has been abroad. Has your sisters come home '? Was 
you present ? The letters has come. Fair words costs 
nothing. There is no roses without thorns. 

2. Take the verb to write, and make it agree with /—with thou — with he — 
with they — in all the tenses of the indicative mood. Take any other verb, and 
do the same. 



LESSON LIX. 
SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE VIII. 

Rule 1. — A singular noun used in a plural sense, his a verb in 
the plural ; as, "Ten sail are in sight.'' 

Rule 2. — Two or more substantives singular, taken together, have 
a verb in the plural ; as, "James and John are here."' 

Exc. — But when substrmives connected by and, denote one per- 
son or thing, the verb is singular; as, " Why is dust and ashes 
proud P 

Rule 3. — Two or more substantives singular, taken separately, or 
o-ne io the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in the singular ; a?, 
" James or John 

Rule 4. — When substantives taken together, are of afferent per- 
sons, the verb agrees with the one next to it ; as, "James or I am 
in the wrong." Better, "James is in the wrong, or 1 am." 

Obs. So also when the substantives are of different numbers, in 
which case the plural number is usually place' 

Rule 5. — 1. A collective noun expressing many, considered as one 
•whole, has a verb in the singular; as. " The company was lai _ 

2. But when a collective nontn expresses many, considered as indi- 
viduals, the verb mast be plural ; as, " My people do not consider." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following Exercise-, pot the verb in the number required by the Rule, 
and give the Rule for the correction. 

(1) Forty head of cattle was grazing in the meadow. 
Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for one dollar. (2) Life 



112 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

and death is in the "power of the tongue. Out of the 
same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. (3) Either 
the boy or the girl were present. (4) I or thou am to 
blame. (5) The people was very numerous. In France 
the peasantry goes barefooted. The regiment consist 
of a thousand men. 



LESSON LX. 

Rule IX. — The predicate substantive after a verb, 
is put in the same case as the subject before it ; as, 
"It is /."— "He shall be called John"-— "I took it 
to be him." 

EXPLANATION. — Verbs having the same case after as before them, are 
chiefly those which signify to be, to become, passive verbs of naming, making; 
choosing-, and the like ; as, "John became -a scholar;" '■'•David was made king." 
The nominative before the finite verb is the subject, the one after it is the pre- 
dicate, and the verb is the copula. Hence they all form a simple sentence, and 
though the nouns denote the same person or thing, and are in the same case, 
•they are not in apposition as in Rule I ; but the noun after a verb is predicated 
of the substantive before it, or which is its subject. . 

EXERCISES. 

In the following Exercises, in each sentence, point out the verb to which the 
Rule applies, and the noun or pronoun before and after it. Tell the case of the 
one before, and why. Put the one after in the same case as the one before, 
give the Rule for the change, and shew how it applies. Tell the subject and 
predicate in each sentence. 

It is me. It could not have been them. I am certain 
it was not me. That is the man who I thought it to be. 
Is that thee ? Whom did they say it was ? I under- 
stood it to have been he. Was it me that said so % It 
could not have been me ; but it might have been him, 
or her, or them both. 

2. Write similar correct sentences, in each of which shall be one of the fol- 
lowing verbs, with the same case after it as before it, viz., is, are, became, was 
made, shall be chosen, to be, to be called, to be appointed. Apply the Rule aa 
above. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 113 

LESSON LXI. 

Rule X. — A transitive verb in the active voice, 
governs the objective case ; as, " We love him.''' — 
" Whom did they send ?" 

EXPLANATION.— The transitive verb in the active voice, always tells what 
its subject or nominative does to some other person or thing, called its object. 
The rule means, that this object must always be put in the objective case. This 
rule is liable to be violated only when the object is a pronoun, because in all 
other words, the nominative and objective cases are alike. 

Nouns and personal pronouns in the objective case, are usually placed after 
the verb — relative and interrogative pronouns, usually before it. 

The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or a part of a sentence, 
may be the object of a transitive active verb ; as, "Boys love to play." — " He 
practised reading aloud." — " I know what he will do." 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, point out the transitive verb— its subject— its 
object — put that object in the proper case — tell what that case is, and why. 

He loves I. Did they hurt ye 1 We know he and 
they. He and they we know. The friend who I love. 
Take care who you admit. I will not give ye up. He 
who you ignorantly worship, declare I unto you. 

2. Write a number of sentences, each of which shall contain an active tran- 
sitive verb : such as, do, have, touch, hurt, love, &c, followed by a personal 
pronoun in the proper case. Parse them, and give the .Rule. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. — An intransitive verb does not govern an objective case ; 
as, " Repenting him of his design" — omit him. 

Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs in a transitive sense (Lesson XVI, 
Obs. 3), govern the objective case ; as, " He runs a race." 

Rule 3. — Intransitive verbs do not admit a passive voice, except 
when used transitively (Lesson X VIII, 5) ; as, " My race is rim" 

Rule 4. — A transitive verb does not admit a preposition after it ; 
as, " I will not allow of it :" — omit of. 

Rule 5. — Verbs signifying to name, APPOINT, constitute, and the 
like, generally govern two objectives, viz. : the direct, denoting the 
person or thing acted upon ; and the indirect, denoting the result 
of the act expressed; as, "They named him John" 
10* 



114 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

EXERCISES UNDER THE SPECIAL RULES. 

Shew how the Rule is violated in each of the following sentences, and cor- 
rect the error. 

(1) Robert plays himself with his lessons. He lies 
him down on the grass. (2) They expatiated themselves 
largely. Planters grow cotton. Sit thee down. (3) I 
am resolved to go. Is your father returned ? He is 
almost perished with cold. (4) They do not want for 
any thing. His servants ye are, to whom ye obey. 
False accusation cannot diminish from his real merit. 
(5) He was chosen for a Senator. 



LESSON LXII-. 

Rule XI. — A preposition governs the objective 
case ; as, " To whom much is given, of him much 
shall be required." 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule means, that the noun or pronoun after a pre- 
position, must be put in the objective case. This rule can be violated only in 
the use of pronouns. 

Obs. 1. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposi- 
tion at some distance after them. But this should generally be 
avoided ; thus, " This is he whom I gave it to,"' — better — " to whom 
I gave it." 

Obs. 2. The preposition is sometimes omitted. ■ It is then said to 
be understood ; thus, " Give (to) me that book." Here, " me " is 
governed by " to" understood. 

SPECIAL EULE. 

Rule. — Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure, are 
coynmonly pxk in the objective case without a governing word; as, 
" He was absent six months last year." — " It cost a shilling? — >l It 
is not worth a cent" — "It weighs a pound" — " The wall is six feet 
high, and two feet thick." 

This may be called the objective of time, value, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the prepositions and the word governed by each. Put that word 
In the proper case, if not in it already'. Give the Rule. 

This belongs to my father and I. Who did you get 
it from 1 Who shall we send it to ? Divide it between 
ye, or give it to he and I. This is a small matter be- 
tween you and I. Who did you give it to 1 Who do 
you work for? 

2. In this way, write a number of short sentences, each of which shall con- 
tain a preposition (see the list, p. 79,) followed by a personal or relative pro- 
noun in the proper case. Parse the sentences, and give the Rule for the case 
after the preposition. 

Obs. 3. "When the prepositions to, at, in, stand before names of 
places, the following usage should be carefully ubserved, viz.: . 

1. To — is used after words denoting motion toward; as, "He 

went to Spain ; but, in this case, it is omitted before home, 
as, " He went home!' 

2. At — is used before names of houses, villages, towns, and foreign 

cities; as, "He resides at the Mansion house — at Geneva — 
at Lisbon." 

3. In — is used before names of countries and large cities; as, 

" He lives in England — in London." But before these, at is 
used after the verbs touch, arrive, land ; and sometimes after 
the verb to be. 

4. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the 

Kb., and in, before the street. 
This Observation contains four special rules, numbered as above. 

EXERCISES. 

Obs. 3 — 1. In the following sentences, change the preposition used, for that 
which usage requires, and give the specific Rule. 

I have been to home all day. Have you been to 
Boston? They live in Union Village; formerly they 
lived at New York. He has been at England, and has 
just returned to home. We touched in France on our 
way to home. He lives to Washington, at B. Street, 
but resided formerly in No. 50 Broadway, New York. 



116 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the name of some 
city, village, country, or state, preceded by a verb or word denoting motion to- 
ward, or by the verb be, live, dwell, &c, and the appropriate preposition. 



LESSON LXIII. 

Rule XII. — Certain words and phrases should 
be followed by appropriate prepositions : Thus — 

Accuse of. • Familiar to, with. A thing is familiar to 

Acquit of. us ; we are familiar with it. 

Adapted to. Free from. 

Ask or inquire of a person, for what Glad of something gained by ourselves, 

we wish to see, — -after what we — at something that befalls another. 

wish to hear of. Independent of. 

Believe in, sometimes, on. Indulge with what is not habitual, — in 

Betray to a person, — into a thing. what is habitual 

Call on a person, — at a place. Insist upon. 

Change for, — to, into. Made of. 

Compare with, in respect of quality, — Marry to. 

to, for the sake of illustration. Need of. 

Confide in. Observation of. 

Conformable, consonant to, with. Prejudice against. 

Conversant with men, — in things. Prevail (to persuade) with, on, upon, — 

Copy from life, nature, — after & parent. (to overcome,) over, against. 
Dependent upon. Profit by. 

Die of disease, — by an instrument or Protect (others) from, — (ourselves) 

violence, — for another. against. 

Differ from. Provide with or for. 

Difficulty in. Reduce (to subdue,) under, — in other 

Diminish from, — diminution of. cases, to ; as, to powder. 

Disappointed in what we have, — of Regard for, — in regard to. 

what we expect. Sick of. 

Discourage from. Swerve from. 

Discouragement to. Taste (meaning capacity or inclination) 

Engaged in a work,— for a time. for, — (meaning actual enjoyment,) of. 

Equal to, with. Tax icith, (e. g., a crime,)— for the state. 

Exception from, — sometimes to. Value upon, or on. 

Expert at, (before a noun,)— in. (before Worthy of, — sometimes the of is under- 

an active participle.) stood. 

EXPLANATION. — As words connected by prepositions, are differently re- 
lated, care must be taken to employ the preposition which best expresses the 
relation intended. The sense and the practice of correct writers, will here be 
our best guide. The above are only a few examples out of many. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 117 

Obs. — The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective, 
usually follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa ; as, Con- 
fide : n, — confidence in, — confident in. 

EXEECISES. 

1. Change the preposition in each of the following sentences, for that required 
by the Rule. 

He was accused with robbery, and acquitted from the 
charge. I have been calling upon an old friend. Call 
in the post-office. I differ with you in that matter. 
John died by consumption, Henry died of the sword, 
and Robert is sick with the jaundice. Try to profit from 
experience. You have a taste of poetry. Conversant 
in men and things. Compare this piece to that, and see 
which is the best. I could never bear the taste for to- 
bacco. This is an exception against the general rule. 

2, Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one or more of the 
words in the preceding table, followed by the appropriate preposition. 



LESSON LXIV. 

Rule XIII. — One substantive governs another in 
the possessive case, when the latter substantive limits 
the signification of the former ; as, "Virtue's reward." 
— "Johns books." — "The sun's rays." 

EXPLANATION. — The noun or pronoun in the possessive, always limits the 
noun that governs it : Thus, " Virtue's reward :" the latter word does not mean 
reward in general, or any indefinite reward, but a particular reward, viz. : Vir- 
tue's. This Rule applies to the relative pronoun, and to the possessive case of 
the personal pronoun, when the noun denoting the thing possessed is under- 
stood ; as, "That book is mine.''' When expressed, the possessor is denoted 
by the possessive adjective pronoun ; as, "That is my book." 

Obs. 1. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, 
implying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) is an- 
nexed to thg last, and understood to the rest ; as, " Jane and Lucy's 
books," i. e., books the common property of Jane and Lucy. But 



118 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

if common possession is not implied, or if several words intervene, 
the sign of the possessive should be annexed to' each ; as, " Jane's 
and Lucy's books," i. e., books, some of which are Jane's, and others, 
Lucy's. 

Obs. 2. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than 
one, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, 
" Julius Czesar's Commentaries." — " The Bishop of London's Charge." 

Obs. 3. The latter or governing substantive is frequently under- 
stood ; as, " He stays at his father's" (house.) 

Obs. 4. The preposition of, with the objective, is frequently 
equivalent to the possessive, but not always. In the use of it, both 
harshness and ambiguity should be avoided. 

|T£ip~ For several of the minutias belonging to this Rule, see An. 
& Pr. Gr. 839-850. 

EXEKCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the noun or pronoun which limits, 
and the noun whose signification is limited by it ; and if understood, supply it. 
Put the limiting word in the possessive case. When several words coming 
together should be in the possessive, or when the name is complex, add the 
sign of the possessive ('s) to the proper term. 

The boys book. The girls bonnet. The Ladys book, 
a birds nest, a bear skin. A mothers tenderness, and a 
fathers care, are natures gifts for mans advantage. A 
horse tooth. James and Thomas feet are cold. Wil- 
liams and Marys reign. Robinson's, Pratt's & Co.'s 
bookstore is in New York. James loss is Thomas gain. 
The Farmers Guide. The Scholars Companion. The 
Court's session is put off. The meeting's president was 
appointed. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain two nouns, one limit- 
ing the other. Put the limiting word in the proper case. 



LESSON LXV. 

Rule XIV. — 1. The subjunctive mood is used when 
both contingency or doubt, and futurity are expressed; 
as, " If he continue to study, he will improve." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

2. When contingency or doubt only, and not 
futurity, is implied, the indicative is used; as, " If 
he has money, he keeps it." 

EXPLANATION. — Doubt and futurity are both implied when the auxiliary 
shall, or should, referring to future time, can be inserted before the verb without 
changing the meaning: thus, "Though he fall, and "Though he should fall," 
mean the same thing. It is only in the present tense and third person singular, 
that there is danger of error under this Rule, except in the verb to be. 

REMARK. — Many of the best writers, and some distinguished grammarians, 
often u<e the subjunctive present, when mere doubt or contingency is expressed, 
and not futurity. A contrary practice now begins to prevail, of using the in- 
dicative where both doubt and futurity are implied; thus, "If he continues to 
study, he will improve." But the weight of good authority still, is evidently in 
favor of the preceding Rules. A general adherence to them would have this 
advantage, that the mood used would be a certain guide to the sense intended. 

Sub-Rule. — Lest and that, annexed to a command, require the 
subjunctive mood; as, "Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." 
"Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." 

Obs. — The subjunctive mood, in the past tense, expresses a sup- 
position with respect to something present, but implies a denial of 
the thing supposed ; as, " If I icere a nightingale, I would sing ;" 
implying, " I am not." 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, state whether the verb following " if" or 
"though" should be in the subjunctive or indicative mood, and why ; and 
make the necessary correction. 

If there be a rule, it should be observed. Though he 
be rich, he is not happy. If the mail arrives to-morrow, 
we shall have letters. If he studies diligently when he 
goes to school, he will improve. If he is discreet when 
he goes abroad, he will gain friends. If he have money, 
he must have earned it. 



LESSON LXVI. 
Rule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed by 
verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; as, " I desire to learn." 
— "A desire to learn." — " Anxious to learn." 



120 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. — One verb being the subject of another, is put in the in- 
finitive ; as, " To study is profitable." 

Rule 2. — One verb governs another as its object or compliment in 
the infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play? 

Rule 3. — The infinitive, as the subject or object of a verb, some- 
times has a subject of its own in the objective case ; as, " For us to 
do so would be improper." — " I know him to be prudent." 

Rule 4. — The infinitive is' used as a predicate nominative after 
any verb as a copula ; as, " You are to blame" 

Rule 5. — To, the sign of the infinitive, is net used after the verbs 
bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let, in the active voice ; 
nor after let in the passive ; as, " I saw him do it," (not " to do it.") 

Rule 6. — The infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or de- 
sign of the preceding act ; as, " Some who came to scoff, remained 
to pray." 

Rule 7. — In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after so — as, 
too, or than ; as, " Be so good as to read this." — " Too old to learn." 
— " Wiser than to undertake it." 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, tell which verb is in the infinitive mood, and 
what governs it. State whether it is the subject or object of the verb. Insert 
or omit to, the sign of the infinitive, and give a reason according to the Rule. 

•Strive learn. Cease do evil. Learn do well. He 
needs not to write. I would have you to take care. He 
dares not to do a wicked action ; nor will he dare do it. 
I heard him to say so. He was heard say so. Let 
James to do this. Bid him to speak to me. Did you 
see him to do that 1 No, but I heard him to do it. Did 
you hear the bell to ring 1 ? Make him to go. He was 
made go. The trumpet was heard sound. 

2. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one verb in the infinitive 
mood, as the subje-ct of another verb — as the object — to express the end or de- 
sign—with to properly omitted— with a subject of its own in the objective 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 

LESSON LXVII. 
Rule XVI. — Participles have the construction of 

NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, and VERBS. 

Rem. — To participles used in these ways, the Rules of Syntax for nouns, 
adjectives, and verbs, may generally be applied. See An. & Pr. Gr. 891-907. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1 . — When the present or perfect participle is tcsed as a noun, 
a noun before it is put in the jiossessive case ; as, " Much depends 
on the pupil's composing frequently." — "His having done so, is 
evident." 

EXPLANATION.— The present participle is used as a verbal noun, when- 
ever it is the subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive verb or preposition. 
Under this Rule, the verbal noun may be modified in all respects as the verb. 

Obs. 1. — A pronoun before the verbal noun, must be the posses- 
sive pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends on 
your composing frequently," (not yours). 

Rule 2. — Wlien the present participle used as a noun, has an 
article or adjective before it, the preposition of follows ; as, "By 
the observing of these rules." — (; A complete forsaking of the truth." 

EXPLANATION. — When used in this way, the participle is regarded as a 
noun simply, and has not thu government or modifications of the verb. 

Obs. 2. — The sense will often be the same, if both the article and 
the preposition be omitted ; but the one should not be omitted with- 
out the omission of the other : thus, " By observing these rules." 
In some cases, however, these two modes express very different 
ideas, and therefore attention to the sense is necessary, as directed 
in the following rule. 

Rule 3. — When the verbal noun expresses something of which the 
noun following it is the doer, it should have the article and the pre- 
position ; as, " It was told in the hearing of the witness." — But when 
it expresses something of which the noun following is not the doer, 
but the object, both shoxdd be omitted ; as, " The court spent much 
time in hearing the witness." 

Obs. 3. — Of can jiever be used after the verbal noun when a pre- 
position follows it ; thus, " By attending to these rules," cannot be 
changed into, "By the attending of to these rules." 
11 



122 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Rule 4. — The past participle, and not the past tense, should be 
used after the auxiliaries have and be ; as, " I have written " (not 
wrote) — " The letter is written " (not wrote) 

Rem. — So also the past participle should not be used for the past 
tense ; as, " He ran" not " he run." — " I saw," not " I seen." 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule can be violated only when the past tense and 
past participle differ in spelling. 

Obs. 4. — The participle in ing, is sometimes used in a passive 
sense after the verb to be, to express the continued suffering of an 
action ; as, " The house is building ;" not, is being built. 

EXERCISES. 

(Rule 1). — In the following Exercise, tell which is the verbal noun, and how 
you know it to be used as such. If a noun stands before it, put that noun in 
the proper case, and give the Rule. 

My brother being sick, is the cause of his absence. 
A man making a fortune, depends partly on him pursu- 
ing a proper course. John attempting too much, was 
the cause of his failure. Hers going away was not ob- 
served. The ship sailing was delayed. 

(Rule 2).— In the following Exercise, point out the participial noun, and tell 
how you know it to be so used. See what words are before and after it, and 
if not right, according to the Rule, make them so, and give the Rule for the 
change. 

Learning of any thing well, requires application. The 
doing our duty is commendable.- By reading of good 
books the mind is improved. Of the making many 
books there is no end. By exercising of our faculties 
they are improved. The giving to every man his own 
is a sacred duty. Beading of novels is a wasting time. 

(Rule 3).— Consider whether the noun following the present participle denotes 
the doer, or the object of the act expressed by it, and correct the sentence ac- 
cordingly. 

At hearing the ear, they shall obey. Because of pro- 
voking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them. 
The greatest pain is felt in the cutting of the skin. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 

(Rule 4). 1.— In the following Exercise, when the past tense stands after the 
auxiliary have, or be, change it into the past participle, and give the Rule for 
the change. 

He should have wrote. Have you spoke to the mas- 
ter ? I am almost froze. She has just began to read. 
James has broke his arm. You should have drove more 
slowly. He has drank too much, and should be took 
home. He might have rode if he had chose. 

2. Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change. 

I seen him an hour ago. I done what you told me. 
James run a mile in ten minutes, and had not began to 
be tired. The school begun yesterday. He ought to 
have went, or at least to have wrote. That is wrong, 
you had not ought to done it. 

3. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one of the following 
verbs, in the present-perfect or past-perfect indicative active, viz.. begin, run, 
write, freeze, eat, drink. Parse the sentences, and apply the Rule. 

4. Write short sentences, with the following verbs in the passive voice ; viz., 
write, begin, shake, sink, speak, give. Parse them, and apply the Rule. 



LESSON LXVIII. 

Rule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and words that 
in point of time relate to each other, the order of 
time must be observed : as, u I have known him these 
many years'" — not "I know him these many years." 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule is general, and here also the sense is the best 
guide. The following principles may be noticed in this place : 

1. That which is always true, is expressed in the present tense. 

2. That which is past, but viewed as continued in the present, is 
expressed in the present-perfect tense. 

3. Verbs having the auxiliaries shall , v:W, may, can, can be asso- 
ciated in a sentence with other verbs in the present only ; those 
with might, cov.ld, would, should, with verbs in the pnst. 



124 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

4. The present infinitive expresses what is coteniporary with, or 
subsequent to, the time of the governing verb ; the present infinitive 
expresses what is antecedent to that time. 

. EXEECISES. 

1. In the following sentences, point out the verb which is wrong in respect 
of tense. Put it in the proper, tense, and tell why it is changed. 

It was said that fever always produced thirst ; that 
heat always expanded metals ; and that truth was im- 
mutable. He is now absent a week. I have been 
abroad last year. If he would lend me that book, I will 
be obliged to him. He can do it if he would. I in- 
tended to have written ; but I still hoped he would have 
come. Rome is said to be built seven hundred years 
before the Christian era. Nero is said to persecute the 
Christians. He has been gone long before I knew it. 

2. Write short sentences, and express in each something which you hoped, 
feared, desired, intended, to do yesterday, before yesterday,— which you hope, 
fear, &c. to do today, to-morrow. Also what some one did yesterday, — before 
yesterday,— always does,— does now,— has just now done,— will do to-morrow, 
—before to-morrow night. 



LESSON LXIX. 

Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs; as, "John speaks distinctly ; he 
is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly!' 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule \.-^- Adverbs should not be used as adjectives, nor adjectives 
as adverbs ; as, " The preceding (not the above) extract." 

Rule 2. — Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative, and 
should not be used unless affirmation is intended ; as, " I cannot 
drink any (not no) more :" or, " I can drink no more." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125 

Rule 3. — Adverbs are for (he most part placed before adjectives, 
after a verb in the simple form, and after the first auxiliary in the 
compound form ; as, " He is very attentive, behaves well, and is 
much esteemed." 

EXPLANATION— This is to be considered only as a general Rule, to which 
there are many exceptions. Indeed no rule for the position of the adverb can 
be given, which is not liable to exceptions. The best direction for the use of 
this Rule, is to place the adverb where the sense requires, having due regard 
to the harmony of the sentence. This Rule applies to adjuncts, or adverbial 
phrases, as well as to adverbs. 

Obs. 1. — Where should not be used for in which, except when the 
reference is to place ; as, " The situation in which (not where) I left 
him ;" because " situation" does not here refer to place. 

Obs. 2. — So is often used elliptically for an adjective, a noun, or 
a ■whole sentence ; as, '•' They are rich ; we are not so" — " He is a 
good scholar, and I told you so." 

Obs. 3. — Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few 
others, are sometimes joined to substantives; as, " ISTot only the 
men, but the women also were present." 

Obs. 4. — A negative is often made by the syllables dis, in, im, un, 
etc.. prefixed to a word. When this is the case, another negative is 
sometimes used, to express a diminished kind of affirmation ; as, 
■ He was not unkind." The negative terms are such as no, not, 
neither, nor, never, etc. 

For a fuller account of the construction and use of adverbs, see 
An. & Pr. Or. 923-943. 

EXERCISES. 

Adverbs being undeclinable, mistakes are'liable to be made chiefly in their 
position ; or in using as adverbs, words that are not so ; or in using adverbs 
where either words are. required. Correct the errors in the following sentences, 
as the Rules require : — 

(Rule 1).— L Point out the modifying words in the following sentences. If 
not adverbs, make them so, and give the Rule. 

Come quick. James does that very good. That was 
done excellent. Time moves rapid. Apparent slow- 
people accomplish much if sufficient steady. You can 
read excellent well. It is real cold. 
11* 



126 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

2. In the following, point out the adverb improperly used. Shew why it is 
so ; change it for the proper term, and give the Rule. 

Thine often infirmities. Come the soonest day possi- 
ble. The soonest time will be late enough. The then 
ministry opposed the measure. The condition where I 
found him was truly bad. He was here last year, since 
when I have not seen him. 

3. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adverb (see Lesson 
XXXI,) modifying a verb or adjective, and see that it is placed as directed in 
Rule 3d and Explanation. 

(Rule 2). — 1. Point out the two negatives in the following sentences. Shew 
why they are wrong ; correct them, and give the Riile. 

I cannot eat no more. He is not able to walk no fur- 
ther. We cannot do that in no way. He will never be 
no taller. Never do nothing of the kind. Time and 
tide will not wait for no man. No man never did that. 

2. Make short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the following 
words : worthy, just) discreet, kind, obliging, agreeable, happy, firm, &c. Then 
prefix to these words the appropriate negative prefix mentioned above. Then 
insert a negative word in each sentence, and mark the difference of meaning 
with each change ; thus, " He is a worthy man," " He is an unworthy man," 
" He is not an unworthy man." 

(Rule 3).— 1. In the following sentences, place the adverb as the Rule di- 
rects, provided the sense will thereby be clearly expressed. 

A man industrious eminently. He is agreeable al- 
ways. He sweetly sings, charmingly converses, and 
prudently conducts himself on all occasions. He unaf- 
fectedly spoke. He manfully has contended for the 
prize, and certainly will obtain it. Time will wait never. 
He could have not done it. He will be always trusty. 

2. The following sentences have the adverb placed according to the Rule, 
but the sense and harmony of the sentence evidently require it to be in a dif- 
ferent position. 

Men contend frequently for trifles. I only saw three 
persons. Of the books I sent him, he only read one. 
James can very well read. You should slowly write. 
He might plainly have told him. He not only saw her 
pleased, but greatly pleased. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 

3. Write a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain one or 
more adverbs correctly placed. [See List, Lesson XXXI.] 

4. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the following 
adverbs, viz., only, merely, solely, chiefly, first, at least, and tell the word which 
they modify. Place the adverbs in as many different positions, in each sentence, 
as vou can, so as to make sense, and mark the change of meaning. 



LESSON LXX. 

Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words or sen- 
texces; as, "He and I must go; but you may 
stay.'*' 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. — Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, 
and cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, "Do good, and seek peace." — 
" Honor thy father and mother" 

EXPLANATION. — The reason of this Ilule is, that words thus connected are 
for the most part in the same construction : that is, nouns connected must be 
in the same case, because they are nominatives to the same verb, or governed 
hy the same noun, verb, or preposition ; and verbs thus connected have usually 
the same nominative. In respect of case, errors occur chiefly in the use of 
pronouns. 

Obs. I. "When conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, or 
when a contrast is stated with but, not, though, &c, the nominative 
is generally repeated ; as, " He may return, but he will not remain." 

Obs. 2. The relative after than, is usually in the objective case ; 
as, " Alfred, than whom," tfce. 

Obs. 3. After verbs of doubting, fearing, denying, the conjunction 
that should be used, and not lest, but, but that ; as, "They feared 
that (not lest,) he would die." 

Obs. 4. In the compound tenses, verbs connected in the same tense, 
have the auxiliary expressed with the first, and understood to the 
rest; as, "John can read, write, and spell." When different tenses 
are connected, the auxiliary must always be expressed ; as, " He has 
come, but he will not stay." 

Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent member of a sentence, 
require corresponding connectives in the subsequent one : thus, 



128 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

1. In clauses or words simply connected — 
Both requires and ; as, " Both he and I came." 

Either — or ; as, "Either he or I will come." 

Neither nor ; as, "Neither he nor I came." 

Whether or ; as, " Whether he or I came." 

Though yet; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in 

him." 

Not only - but also ; as, " Not only he, but also his brother 

goes." 
2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — 

The comparative degree requires than; as, " He is taller than I am." 
**> Other requires than ; as, " It is no other than he." 

Else than ; as, " What else do you expect than this ?" 

As as (expressing equality); as, " He is as tall as I am." 

As so (expressing equality) ; as, "As thy day is, so 

shall thy strength be." 
So — — — as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; as, 
" He is not so learned as his brother." 

So that (expressing consequence) ; as, " He is so 

weak, that he can not walk." 

Such as (expressing similarity); as, " He, or such as he." 

Note.— Jls and so, in the members of a comparison, are properly adverbs. 
EXPLANATION. — This Rule means, that when any of the corresponding 
terms above, stands in one member of a sentence, the other term should 
stand in the other member. After " though,' 1 '' "yet" is sometimes understood. 

Rule 3. — When a subsequent clause, or part of a sentence, is com- 
mon to two different but connected antecedent clauses, it must be 
equally applicable to both ; as, " That work always has been, and 
always will be, admired" 

EXPLANATION. — In order to see whether sentences are correct according 
to this Rule, join the member of the sentence common to the two clauses, to 
each of them separately, so as to make two sentences. If both of the sentences 
are grammatically correct, and express the sense intended, the sentence is right 
—if not, it is wrong, and must be corrected. Thus, for example, "HeJias not, 
and he cannot, be censured," is wrong, because, if you add the member " be 
censured," to the first clause, it will make " He has not be censured," which is 
incorrect, according to Sub-Rule 4 under Rule XVI. This must be corrected by 
inserting " been" after " has not," so as to read, " He has not been, and he can- 
not be, censured." The different clauses should be correctly marked by punc- 
tuation. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 

This Rule is often violated in sentences in which there are two comparisons 
of a different nature and government. Thus, " He was more beloved, but not 
so much admired as Cinthio." Here, " as Cinthio," is applicable to the clause 
"so muck admired," but cannot be connected with "mnre beloved." In such 
sentences as this, the proper way is, to complete the construction of the first 
member, and leave that of the second understood ; as, "He was more beloved 
than Cinthio, but not so much admired" (as Cinthio). 

EXERCISES. 

(Rule 1). — 1. In the following, point out the connected verbs. If they have 
the same nominative, put them in the same mood and tense. If they must be 
in different moods or tenses, repeat the nominative ; and if that is a noun, re- 
peat it by its pronoun. Point out the connected nouns or pronouns, and put 
them in the same case. 

He reads and wrote well. If he say it, and does it, I 
am content. If he be at home, and is well, give him 
the letter. My father has read the book, and will return 
it to-morrow. James and me ran all the way. That 
is a small matter between you and I. Him and I are 
great friends, and so are Mary and me. Nobody knows 
that better than her and me. 

2. Write short sentences, in which two or more verbs are connected in the 
same mood and tense, and notice particularly Obs. 4. Put the verbs in the 
present— in the past — in the present- perfect, &c. Express the same ideas, with 
the verbs in the passive voice. 

3. Write sentences containing two or more verbs in different moods and 
tenses, paying attention to Obs. 1 ; others, containing two or more nouns or 
pronouns connected in the same case. 

(Rile 2). — 1. Point out the corresponding terms in the following sentences, 
and make the second correspondent to the first, or the first to the second, as the 
sense requires. Supply the correspondent term where improperly omitted. 

He will not do it himself, nor let another do it for 
him. Though he slay me, so will I trust in him. That, 
is so far as I am able to go. This book is equally good 
as that one. Nothing is so bad as it cannot be worse. 
He was not only diligent, but successful in his studies. 
It is neither cold or hot. 

2. Write correct sentences, each of which shall contain one pair of the 
corresponding terms above, and state what they express. • 



130 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3. In the following sentences, point out the comparative degree, or other cor- 
respondent terms, and make the one correspond to the other, according to the 
Rule. 

James writes better as I do. There were more be- 
sides him engaged in that business. No more but two 
can play at this game. The days are longer in summer 
besides they are in winter. Has James no other book 
but this % This is such conduct that I did not expect. 
It can be no other but he. They had no other book ex- 
cept this one. I would rather read as write. He no 
sooner did the mischief but he repented. 

2. "Write short sentences, each of which shall contain a word in the com- 
parative degree, or the word other or such followed by the proper correspondent 
term. 

(Rule 3).— Make trial of the following sentences, as directed in the explana- 
tion. If either of the clauses, when joined with the common membert>f the sen- 
tence, makes a grammatical error, point it out and correct it. » 

He always has, and he always will, be punctual. 
They might, and probably were, good. James is taller, 
but not so strong as his brother. His book is not so 
good, though larger than I expected. This house is 
larger, but not so convenient as that one. I ever have, 
and I ever will say so. "He depends and confides in 
me," is as correct as, " He confides and depends upon 
me." 



LESSON LXXI. 

Rule XX. — Interjections have no grammatical 
connection with the other words in a sentence. 

After interjections, pronouns of the first person are commonly in 
the objective case ; those of the second, in the nominative ; as, " Ah 
me !"— " O thou !" In neither, however, does the case depend on 
the interjection. In the objective, there is an ellipsis of the govern- 
ing -word ; as, " Ah (pity) me !" In the nominative, they are in the 
nominative independent, denoting the person addressed. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 

LESSON LXXII. 

GENERAL RULE. 

In every sentence, the words employed, and the or- 
der in which they are arranged, should be such as 
clearly and properly to express the idea intended; 
and, at the same time, all the parts of the sentence 
should correspond, and a regular and dependent 
construction be observed throughout 

See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 973 to 9*76. 

EXPLANATION. — This may be regarded as a general rule, applicable to 
every case, and therefore comprehending all the preceding. Though these em- 
brace almost every thing belonging to the proper construction of sentences, yet 
there will sometimes occur, instances of impropriety in the use, and arrange- 
ment, and connection of words, for the avoiding or correcting of which, no very 
specific rules can be given. 

Among the evils to be guarded against under this Rule, are the 
following, — 

1. The use of words which do not Correctly or properly convey 

the idea intended, or which convey another with equal pro- 
priety. 

2. The arrangement of words or clauses in such a way, that their 

relation to other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult to 
be perceived. 

3. The separating of adjuncts from their principals, and placing 

them so that they may be joined to words to which they do 
not belong. 

4. The separating of relative clauses improperly from their ante- 

cedents. 

5. Using injudiciously, or too frequently, the third personal or 

possessive pronoun, especially in indirect discourse. 

EXERCISES. 
EXPLANATION. — The following sentences are not grammatically incorrect, 
but from some of the causes mentioned above, are obscure, inelegant, ambigu- 
ous, or unintelligible. Point out the impropriety, correct it ; and give a reason 
for the correction. 

(1) The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides, 
wheeled about, and halted with the river on their back. 



132 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

(2) Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the 
father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he 
first opened the way into Asia. (3) Lost, a new um- 
brella belonging to a gentleman with a curiously carved 
ivory head. (4) Claudius w r as canonized among the gods, 
who scarcely deserved the name of man. (5) A farmer 
went to a lawyer and told him that his bull had gored his ox. 



LESSON LXXIII. 

Ellipsis. 
Rule I. — An Ellipsis, or omission of words, is 
admissible, when they can be supplied by the mind 
with such certainty and readiness as not to obscure 
the sense. Thus, instead of saying " He was a 
learned man, and he was a wise man, and he was a 
good man;" we say, *He was a learned, wise, and 
good man." 

EXPLANATION. — There is a constant tendency among men to express 
their ideas in the fewest words possible. Whenever, therefore, a word can be 
spared from a sentence without obscuring its meaning, that word is often left 
out. This is called ellipsis. Thus, instead of the full form of the sentence, as 
follows, " I rise at six hours of the clock in the morning, I breakfast at seven 
hours of the clock in the morning, I go to school at nine hours of the clock, 
and study till twelve hours of the clock," we can say, (and be equally well un- 
derstood,) " I rise at six, breakfast at seven, go to school at nine, and study till 
twelve." This is the origin of abbreviated sentences ; and in order to parse 
such, or to understand their grammatical construction, the words left out must 
be supplied. 

EXEECISES. 

1. In the following sentences, leave out such words as may be omitted with- 
out obscuring the sense. 

He had an affectionate father and an affectionate 
mother. You may read, or you may write, as you 
please. Will you study, or will you not study ? I have 
been at London, and I have seen the queen. A house 
and a garden. He would neither go, nor would he send. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 

2. In the following sentences, supply the words left out, so as to shew their 
full construction. 

It is six o'clock ; we may study till seven. We have 
done it, but you have not. John will read, and Thomas 
write letters. This apple is larger than that, but not so 
sweet. Give this apple to James, that to Robert, and 
the other to Mary. 1 have heard and read much about 
Washington and the Revolution. " Sun, stand thou still 
upon Gibeon ; and thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon." 



LESSON LXXIV. 

Rule 2. — An ellipsis is not allowable when it 
would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be 
attended with an impropriety ; for example, " We 
speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
seen," should be, " We know that which we do 
know, and testify that which we have seen." 

EXPLANATION.— The sense will always be obscured, when on account of 
improper ellipsis, the construction of the sentence is rendered doubtful, or is 
not clearly and readily perceived. When a sentence or clause is emphatic, 
ellipsis is less allowable. The antecedent to the relative, except in poetry, is 
seldom omitted ; and the relative itself, if in the nominative case, never. The 
article should be repeated when a different form of it is required ; as, "A horse 
and an ass." 

EXERCISES. 
In the following sentences,- point out the improper ellipsis. Shew why it is 
improper, and correct it. 

Cicero made orations, both on public and private 

occasions. He is the most diligent scholar I ever knew. 

Thou hast that is thine. Thine the kingdom, the power, 

and the glory. Depart in peace, be ye warmed, clothed, 

and filled. I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. 

That is the best can be said of him. He has a house 

and orchard. We must all go the way we shall not 

return. 

12 



134 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

LESSON LXXV. 
Model of Syntactical Parsing. 

In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing the 
word etymologically, [See Lesson XXXVL] to state its relation 
to other words in the sentence, and the rules by which these rela- 
tions are governed. To illustrate this more clearly, the same sen- 
tence parsed etymologically, Lesson XXXVII., is here parsed 
syntactically. 

" Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be 
yet wiser." • 

" Give," is a verb, transitive, irregular ; give, gave, given ; in 
the imperative, active, second person, singular, and agrees 
with its nominative thou, understood. Rule VIII. " A 
verb agrees," (fee. 

"Instruction," is a noun ; neuter, in the objective singular, governed 
by give. Rule X. " A transitive verb," <fec. 

" To," is a preposition, and expresses the relation between give and 
man, as its remote object. 

" A," is an article, indefinite, belongs to man, and shows it to be used 
indefinitely. Rule III. " The article a or an is put," &c. 

" Wise," is an adjective, compared, wise, wiser, wisest ; and expresses 
a quality of man. Rule II. "An adjective or partici- 
ple," (fee. 

" Man," is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, governed by 
to. Rule XT. " A preposition governs," (fee. 

" And," is a conjunction, copulative, and connects the two clauses. 
Rule XIX. " Conjunctions connect," <fec. 

" He," is a third personal pronoun, masculine, the nominative, singu- 
lar ; stands instead of man, with which it agrees. Rule 
IV. " Pronouns agree," <fee, and is the subject or nomina- 
tive of xcill be. Rule VI. " The subject of a finite verb," <fec. 

" Will be," is a verb, intransitive, irregular ; am, was, been ; in tbe 
future, indicative, active ; third person, singular ; and 
affirms of its subject he, with which it agrees. Rule VIII. 
- " A verb agrees," &c. 

"Yet," is an adverb, modifying wiser. Rule XVIII. "Adverbs 
modify," &c. 



ENGLISH GRAM. 135 

" Wiser," is an adjective, comparative degree ; wise, wiser, wisest ; 
and belongs to man, or is predicated of he. Rule II. " An 
adjective or participle,"' <i-c. 

Questions similar to those suggested at the close of Lz 
XXXVII, may be proper here also. 

For Exercises in Syntactical Parsing, the pupil may now return 
to Lessox XXXYIIL, or take any plain passage in the reading 
lessons of the Spelling Book ; or the ordinary reading books used 
in the school, may be used for this purpose, as the teacher may 
direct. 



LESSON LXXYI. 
Promiscuous Exercises on the Rules of Syntax. 

In order to correct the following Exercises, examine each sentence carefully, 
and see wherein it is wrong. See, first, whether words that should agree, do 
so — the verb with its nominative — the numeral adjective with its noun — the 
pronoun personal and relative, with its substantive; secondly, whether nouus 
and pronouns are in the case which the word governing them requires ; and 
lastly, whether the words are arranged in the order which the Rules require. 
Having found the error, correct it, and give the Rule for the correction. These 
Exercises, when corrected, or in the time of correcting, may be used as Exercises 
in Syntactical parsing. 

1. John writes beautiful. I shall never do so no more. The 
train of our ideas are often interrupted. "Was you present at last 
meeti«g ? He need not be in so much haste. He dare not act 
otherwise than he does. Him who they seek is in the house. 
George or I is the person. They or he is much to be blamed. 
The troop consist of fifty men. Those set of books was a valuable 
present. That pillar is sixty foot high. His conduct evinced the 
most extreme vanity. These trees are remarkable talL 

2. He acted bolder than was expected. This is lie who I gave 
the book to. Eliza always appears amiably. Who do you lodge 
with now ? He was born at London, but he died in Bath. If he 
be sincere, I am satisfied. Her father and her were at church. 
The master requested him and I to read more distinctly. It is no 
more but his due. Flatterers flatter as long, and no longer than 
they have expectations of gain. John told the same story as you 
told. This is the largest tree which I have ever seen. 



136 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of pain. 
Those sort of dealings are unjust. David, the son of Jesse, was 
the youngest of his brothers. You was very kind to him, lie said. 
"Well, says I, what does thou think of him now ? James is one of 
those bdys that was kept in at school, for bad behavior. Thou, 
James, will deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come of them- 
selves. We need not to be afraid. It is all fell down. 

4. He expected to have gained more by the bargain. You 
should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him who spoke first. 
Do you like ass milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who did you 
buy your grammar from ? If one takes a wrong method at first 
setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither man nor woman were 
present. I am more taller than you. She is the same lady who 
sang so sweetly. After the most straitest sect of our religion, I 
lived a Pharisee. Is not thy wickedness great ? and thine iniquities 
infinite ? There is six that studies grammar. 



LESSON' LXXVII. 
Punctuation. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into 
sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to con- 
vey to the reader the exact sense, and assist him in the proper de- 
livery. The principal stops are the following : — 

The comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : ) the period, or 
full stop ( . ) the note of interrogation ( ? ) the note of exclama- 
tion ( ! ) the parenthesis ( ) and the dash ( — ) 

The comma represents the shortest pause ; the semicolon, a pause 
double that of the comma ; the colon, a pause double that of the 
semicolon ; and the period, a pause double that of the colon. 

The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the reader 
or speaker. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, 
though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a 
pause between them. 

The Semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence, 
which are less closely connected than those which are separated by 
a comma. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 137 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, 
less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but 
not so independent as to require a period. 

The Period is used when a sentence is complete, with respect to 
the construction and the sense intended ; as, " God made all things." 
"By disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions is 
tamed." - In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits of both 
the active and the passive virtues." 

The period must be used after all abbreviations ; as, " A. D." 
"M. A.""Fol." 



LESSON LXXVIII. 
Of Capitals. 

In Composition, the following words begin with capital letters : 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note; or any 
other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of interroga- 
tion, or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, 
are independent of each other. 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons,' places, ships, &c. 

4. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, are written in caj^itals. 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, etc. 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; a3, 
Grecian, Roman, English, <fcc. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon ; as, 
Always remember this ancient maxim : " Knov: thyself." 

9. Common nouns, when personified ; as, " Come, gentle Spring." 
10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; 

as, " Euclid's Elements of Geometry ;" " Goldsmith's Deserted 
Village." 

Xote. Other words besides the preceding, may begin with capi- 
tals, when they are remarkably emphatic, or the principal subject 
of the composition. 

12* 



188 PRACTICAL LESSONS IK 

PAET FOURTH.— PEOSODY. 

LESSON LXXIX. 

Of Prosody. 

Prosody consists of two parts ; Elocution, and Versification. 

I. ELOCUTION". 
Elocution is correct pronunciation, or the proper management of 
the voice in reading or speaking, and comprises Accent, Quantity, 
Emphasis, Pause, and Tone. 

II. VERSIFICATION. 
Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of long 
and short syllables according to certain rules. Composition so ar- 
ranged is called Verse, or Poetry. 

Verse is of two kinds ; Rhyme and Blank-verse. Rhyme is a similarity of 
sound in the last syllables of two or more lines arranged in a certain order. 
Poetry consisting of such lines, is sometimes called Rhyme. Blank-VERSE is 
poetry without rhyme. 

Every verse or line of poetry consists of a certain number of parts called 
Feet. The arrangement of these feet in a line according to the accent, is called 
Metre; and the dividing of a line into its component feet, is called Scanning. 

All feet used in poetry, are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, 
and four of three syllables; the long syllable being marked by, a straight line ( — ) 
and the short, by a curve, ( ^- ) as follows : 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISSYLLABLE. 

A Trochee — — - A Dactyl — ^ w 

An Iambus ^ — An Amphibrach w — v 

A Spondee An Anapaest -— w — 

A Pyrrhic ^ w A Tribrach *—- --- -~s 

In English, accented syllables are long, unaccented are short. 
The Metres in most common use, are the Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapastic. 
Iambic Metre is adapted to grave and serious subjects ; it has the second, 
fourth, and other even syllables, accented or long ; and the first, third, and other 
uneven syllables, unaccented, or short. Of this verse there are various kinds, 
some having two feet, some three, some four, some five. This last is called 
heroic measure, and is the same that is used by Milton, Young, Thomson, 
Pollok, &c. 
When the last line of a stanza is extended to six feet, it is called Alexandrine. 
Trochaic Metre is quick and lively, and adapted to gay and cheerful com- 
position. It comprises verses of one and a half, two, three, four, five, and some- 
times six feet ; sometimes followed by an additional syllable. 

Anapjestic Metre consists of lines of two, three, four Metres or Anapaests, 
with sometimes an additional syllable. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 

LESSON LXXX. 

Composition. 

Composition is the putting of words together in sentences, for 
the purpose of expressing our ideas in writing, in the best man- 
ner, according to the Rules of Grammar, and the best usages of the 
language. 

Almost all the Exercises in the preceding Grammar, and espe- 
cially those under the Rules of Syntax, have been framed with a 
view to exercise the pupil in the elementary parts of composition, 
by leading him to vary his ideas, and to express the same idea in 
different forms ; to detect and correct errors which often occur in 
the construction of sentences ; and so to put him on his guard 
against similar errors ; and also to form correct sentences for him- 
self, according to the particular directions laid down under the 
various Rules. In committing his own ideas to writing, in the form 
of compositions, then, all he has to do, is to endeavor to select the 
proper words, and to combine these so as to express his meaning 
correctly, according to the Rules with which he is now supposed to 
be familiar. The few following hints may be useful. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO YOUNG COMPOSERS. 

1. Spell every word correctly. Pay proper attention to the use 
of capitals ; always using them where they should be, and never 
where they should not be. [See Lesson LXXVIIL] 

2. Carefully avoid all vulgar expressions and cant phrases, and 
never use words which you do not understand, or which do not cor- 
rectly express your meaning. 

3. At the end of the line, never divide a word of one syllable, 
nor any word in the middle of a syllable. If there should not be 
room at the end of the line for the whole syllable, do not begin it 
at all, but carry it to the next line. 

4. When you have written what you intended, look over it care- 
fully ; see if you can improve it by a better choice of words, or by a 
better arraugement of them, so as to express your meaning more 
clearly ; and mark the changes proposed. 

5. Copy the whole over in as neat, distinct, and plain a manner 
as you can, guarding against blots and erasures, which disfigure 



140 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

any writing, dotting your i's, crossing your fs, and pointing the 
whole in the best manner you can, so that any person, as well as 
yourself, may easily read and understand it. 

6. Try to make every new composition better than the one before 
it. Never write carelessly, and though it may be a little difficult at 
first, a little practice will soon make it easy. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION 

The more simple exercises in composition are, for young begin- 
ners, so much the better. They should not be required to write 
about any thing with which they are not perfectly familiar. 

1. The following is a very simple and easy exercise. A class of 
pupils may be directed to look at a certain picture in the Spelling 
Book or Geography, or any other book at hand ; and the teacher 
may excite their attention by asking some questions, or telling them 
something respecting it, and then direct each one, either in his seat 
or at home, to write a description of the picture, together with any 
ideas that occur to him on the subject. This method will furnish an 
endless variety of easy and useful exercises. 

2. From pictures, the attention may be turned to real objects. 
The class may now be directed to any object or objects within their 
view, which they may be required to describe and give their ideas 
about, as before ; for example, the school-house and its fur iture — 
the business of the day, in the form of a journal — the principal 
objects in view to the south of the school-house — to the north — to 
the east — to the west. Each may be directed to describe his own 
house, and the leading objects in view from it in different directions ; 
or any object which he may choose to select. 

3. Another class of easy interesting subjects may be found in 
describing familiar objects in natural history — the various seasons 
of the year, with their employments and amusements — the various 
operations of the farmer, and different mechanic arts — narratives of 
any accidents, or striking events that may have occurred. 

4. Short familiar epistolary correspondence, real or imaginary. 
One pupil may be directed to write to another concerning any thing 
he pleases. A post-office might be set up in the school, with its 
letter-box, to be opened at stated seasons, and its contents read for the 
amusement and instruction of the school. This exercise, because 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ' 141 

voluntary, would be entered into with spirit, and prove of great 
benefit, 

5. Themes on familiar subjects may next be assigned, such as the 
following : 

Point out the evils of the following vices and improprieties, and 
make such remarks respecting them as you think proper ; viz., 
Lying, Stealing, Swearing, Disobedience to Parents, Sabbath-break- 
ing, Discontentment, Intemperance, 111 nature, Violent passions, 
Penuriousness, Idleness, Cruelty to animals, Bad company, &c. 

Point out the benefits arising from Truth, Honesty, Sobriety, 
Love to God, Love to men, Good nature, Industry, Contentment, 
Kindness to the poor, Keeping good company, Proper amusements, 
<kc, and make such remarks as you think proper respecting them. 

In all cases with beginners, it is better to require them to give 
their own thoughts on familiar subjects with which they are ac- 
quainted, than to give them subjects of an abstract nature, or of 
which they cannot be supposed to have much knowledge. In the 
former case, they will be likely to give their own thoughts in their 
own way ; in the latter, they will have to resort to books, and in- 
stead of giving their own ideas, will be apt to copy the writings 
of others, without perhaps well understanding them. 

6. When the compositions are prepared, the errors in Grammar 
should be pointed out and explained, mistakes in orthography, capi- 
tals, punctuation, <fec, corrected, or pointed out to be corrected, and 
then the whole copied, in a correct and plain manner, into a book 
kept for that purpose. 

Compositions of a higher order than those which have been sug- 
gested, would be above the years and acquirements of those for 
whom this little work is intended, and would therefore be improper. 
Having gone through these Lessons, pupils, though young, will be 
well prepared for taking up, with ease and advantage, the " Ana- 
lytical and Practical Grammar of the English Language," and for 
going through a more thorough and critical course. 

[the end.] 






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OLNEY'S OUTLINE MAPS. 

TJODDS ARITHMETIC, New and very Popular. 

WHITLOCK'S GEOMETRY AND SURVEYING. 

BROCKLESBY'S METEOROLOGY. 

BENTLEY'S PICTORIAL SPELLING BOOK. 

COOPER'S VIRGIL. 

BROCKLESBY'S WONDERS OF THE MICROSCOPE. 

GALLAUDET'S SCHOOL AND FAMILY DICTIONARY. 

KIRKHAM'S ELOCUTION. 

OLNEY'S NATIONAL PRECEPTOR. 

GRIFFIN'S SOUTKERN READERS, 1, 2, 3, 4. 

The above i te in quite general use, 90 far as known, in the United St 
Teachers are invited to examine them, and it is believed they will be satisfied 
their superiority. 

P. W. If Co. keep for sale all the various School books in use ; Bibles, Te£j| 
ments, Classical Books, Paper, Stationary, Steel Pens, &c. &c, in quantities, 
lowest prices. 



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